Personalized models of physical activity responses to text message micro-interventions: A proof-of-concept application of control systems engineering methods
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES: The conceptual models underlying physical activity interventions have been based largely on differences between more and less active people. Yet physical activity is a dynamic behavior, and such models are not sensitive to factors that regulate behavior at a momentary level or how people respond to individual attempts at intervening. We demonstrate how a control systems engineering approach can be applied to develop personalized models of behavioral responses to an intensive text message-based intervention. DESIGN & METHOD: To establish proof-of-concept for this approach, 10 adults wore activity monitors for 16 weeks and received five text messages daily at random times. Message content was randomly selected from three types of messages designed to target (1) social-cognitive processes associated with increasing physical activity, (2) social-cognitive processes associated with reducing sedentary behavior, or (3) general facts unrelated to either physical activity or sedentary behavior. A dynamical systems model was estimated for each participant to examine the magnitude and timing of responses to each type of text message. RESULTS: Models revealed heterogeneous responses to different message types that varied between people and between weekdays and weekends. CONCLUSIONS: This proof-of-concept demonstration suggests that parameters from this model can be used to develop personalized algorithms for intervention delivery. More generally, these results demonstrate the potential utility of control systems engineering models for optimizing physical activity interventions.
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“Beyond connectivity and feasibility, the advantages of AI chatbot programs lie essentially in the computational power to develop and deliver personalized interventions [22-24].”
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Hojjatinia, S., Daly, E., Hnat, T. W., Hossain, S. M., Kumar, S., Lagoa, C. M., Nahum-Shani, I. B., Samiei, S. A., Spring, B. J., & Conroy, D. E. (2021) · npj Digital Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41746-021-00532-2 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationLopez-Barreiro, J., Sabucedo, L. M. Á., Soidán, J. L. G., & Santos-Gago, J. M. (2023) · Interactive Journal of Medical Research · doi:10.2196/44135 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Lee, A. M., Hojjatinia, S., Courtney, J. B., Brunke-Reese, D., Hojjatinia, S., Lagoa, C. M., & Conroy, D. E. (2023) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/41414 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Specification of a Computational Model of Physical Activity Habit
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Self-citationAmbiguity in Communicating Intensity of Physical Activity: Survey Study
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Hojjatinia, S., Shoorehdeli, M. A., Fatahi, Z., Hojjatinia, Z., & Haghparast, A. (2019) · PubMed Central · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1910.11380 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationHojjatinia, S., Lee, A. M., Hojjatinia, S., Lagoa, C. M., Brunke-Reese, D., & Conroy, D. E. (2022) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kaac051 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationGazi, A. H., Gao, D., Ghosh, S., Xu, Z., Trella, A. L., Klasnja, P., & Murphy, S. A. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/72830 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Episodic Future Thinking as Digital Micro-interventions
Persson, D. R., Yoo, S., Bardram, J. E., Skinner, T. C., & Bækgaard, P. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48038-6_14 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Taylor, L., & Dibb, B. (2022) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2022.2079802 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The JITAI Code: A Primer on Just‐In‐Time‐Adaptive Interventions
El‐Toukhy, S., & Nahum-Shani, I. B. (2020) · Wiley StatsRef: Statistics Reference Online · doi:10.1002/9781118445112.stat08192 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Identification of Markov Jump Autoregressive Processes from Large Noisy Data Sets
Hojjatinia, S., & Lagoa, C. M. (2020) · IFAC-PapersOnLine · doi:10.1016/j.ifacol.2020.12.1300 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationPersson, D. R., Ramasawmy, M., Khan, N., Banerjee, A., BLANDFORD, A. E., Bardram, J. E., & Bækgaard, P. (2025) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/72658 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Wilson, E. D., Helal, S., Bull, C., & Honary, M. (2019) · International Conference on Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare · doi:10.1145/3329189.3329245 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Message Reminders Encouraging Brisk Walking by Considering the Dynamic Factor of Cognitive Fatigue
Symons, M., Vandebosch, H., Cutello, C. A., & Poels, K. (2022) · European Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.47368/ejhc.2022.303 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Analysis of a Signal Transmission in a Pair of Izhikevich Coupled Neurons
Margarit, D. H., Reale, M. V., & Scagliotti, A. F. (2020) · Biophysical Reviews and Letters · doi:10.1142/s1793048020400019 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Personality and Individual Differences
Ellis, D. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108671408.006 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Ellis, D. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108671408.003 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Gotzian, L. (2023) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/6v7d5 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Symons, M., Vandebosch, H., & Poels, K. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-023-17464-z · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Soltero, E. G., Musaad, S. M. A., O’Connor, T. M., Thompson, D. I., Norris, K. C., & Beech, B. M. (2024) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/54595 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Self-citationHojjatinia, S., Lagoa, C. M., & Dabbene, F. (2019) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1908.11713 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial Interaction and Interpersonal Relationships
Ellis, D. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108671408.005 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Model Predictive Control approach to adaptive messaging intervention for physical activityPreprint
Bardakci, I. E., Hojjatinia, S., Hojjatinia, S., Lagoa, C. M., & Conroy, D. E. (2021) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.2108.11499 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationGoal setting and achievement for walking: A series of n-of-1 digital interventionsPreprint
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Hojjatinia, S., Shoorehdeli, M. A., Fatahi, Z., Hojjatinia, Z., & Haghparast, A. (2019) · Basic and Clinical Neuroscience Journal · doi:10.32598/bcn.9.10.435
Self-citationDynamical Outcome Modeling of Fragmented Intensive Longitudinal DataPreprint
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Additional file 3 of Get the message? A scoping review of physical activity messaging
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A Risk Minimization Approach to Messaging Intervention for Physical Activity
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Self-citationAdditional file 2 of Get the message? A scoping review of physical activity messaging
Williamson, C., Baker, G., Mutrie, N., Niven, A. G., & Kelly, P. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12135303
Williamson, C., Kelly, P., Tomasone, J. R., Bauman, A. E., Mutrie, N., Niven, A. G., Richards, J., & Baker, G. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.15567984
Williamson, C., Kelly, P., Tomasone, J. R., Bauman, A. E., Mutrie, N., Niven, A. G., Richards, J., & Baker, G. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.15567891
Symons, M., Vandebosch, H., & Poels, K. (2024) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.26665804
Schroé, H., Carlier, S., Van Dyck, D., Backere, F. D., & Crombez, G. (2023) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.22605547
Williamson, C., Kelly, P., Tomasone, J. R., Bauman, A. E., Mutrie, N., Niven, A. G., Richards, J., & Baker, G. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.15567924
Williamson, C., Kelly, P., Tomasone, J. R., Bauman, A. E., Mutrie, N., Niven, A. G., Richards, J., & Baker, G. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.15567927
Additional file 1 of Get the message? A scoping review of physical activity messaging
Williamson, C., Baker, G., Mutrie, N., Niven, A. G., & Kelly, P. (2020) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.12135294
Liu, Y., Tabaczynski, A., Abdullah, S., Benson, L., & Conroy, D. E. (2026) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kaag028
Self-citationXia, A., Thurimella, K., Bull, S. S., Waughtal, J., Chávez, C., Novins-Montague, S., Silvasstar, J., Salyers, A. J., Ho, P. M., & Lavieri, M. S. (2025) · JMIR Cardio · doi:10.2196/77896
- Authors
- Conroy, D. E., Hojjatinia, S., Lagoa, C. M., Yang, C.-H., Lanza, S. T., & Smyth, J. M.
- Affiliations
- Northwestern University (US)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Corresponding author
- Conroy, David E.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychology of Sport and Exercise
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-03
- Volume
- 41
- Pages
- 172-180
- ISSN
- 1469-0292 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6404972
- OpenAlex
- W2810060365
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 9
- FWCI
- 8.77
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Psychology of sport and exercise (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- OSF Preprints (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Penn State Social Science Research Institute
- National Science Foundation (CNS 1329422)
- National Institutes of Health (P50 DA039838)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Physical Activity and Health
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › General Health Professions › Mobile Health and mHealth Applications
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Keywords
- physical activity, text messaging intervention, micro-interventions, dynamic system modeling, control engineering, sedentary behavior, socio-cognitive processes, wearable activity trackers, mobile health
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