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Psychosocial stress induces working memory impairments in an n-back paradigm.
Abstract
In contrast to the substantial number of studies investigating the effects of stress on declarative memory, effects of stress on working memory have received less attention. We compared working memory (numerical n-back task with single digits) in 40 men exposed either to psychosocial stress (Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)) or a control condition. Task difficulty was varied using two conditions (2-back vs. 3-back). Salivary cortisol (as a marker of hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activity) and salivary alpha-amylase (sAA as a marker of sympathetic nervous system (SNS) activity) were assessed immediately before and three times after the stress or control condition. As expected stress resulted in an increase in cortisol, sAA, and negative affect. Subjects exposed to stress showed significant working memory impairments in both workload conditions. The analysis of variance indicated a main effect of stress for reaction time as well as accuracy. In addition, for reaction time a stress-block interaction occurred. Follow up tests revealed that only during the first block at each level of difficulty performance was significantly impaired by stress. Thus, the effects of stress became smaller the longer the task was performed. Results provide further evidence for impaired working memory after acute stress and illustrate the time course of this phenomenon.
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“In humans experimental or pharmacological stress studies have reported inconsistent effects with impairments as well as enhancements being reported [42], [46], [47].”
From Dose-dependent effects of endotoxin on neurobehavioral functions in humans (2011) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“Thus, in the current study we employed a computerized n-back paradigm (2-back version), a well-evaluated sensitive tool to analyze working memory functions [34], [41], [42].”
From Dose-dependent effects of endotoxin on neurobehavioral functions in humans (2011) · cites this paper as [42]
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“Since the physiological stress response seems to modulate prefrontal cortical functions (Fuchs et al., 2006; Diamond et al., 2007; McEwen, 2007) it might be possible that n-back performance is particularly impaired when the task processing strongly occupies the cognitive resources.”
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“We repeatedly displayed the IAPS images before the start of each n-back task to improve the efficacy of visual affective induction, because the study in [39] found that n-back task performance, stress-hormonal changes [31], heart rate and subjective stress index due to induced stress are modulated by time.”
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The influence of acute stress on working memory: Physiological and psychological mechanisms
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BackgroundImpact of Music on Working Memory in Rwanda
Giroux, S.-V., Caparos, S., Gosselin, N. H., Rutembesa, E., & Blanchette, I. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00774 · Cited by 6
“Considering the sociocultural context and the level of education of the sample, images of animals from the African continent, considered familiar stimuli, were used instead of the letters or numbers commonly used in n-back tasks (Schoofs et al., 2008; Schmiedek et al., 2014; Philip et al., 2016).”
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Programming an n-Back task in Qualtrics using HTML and JavaScript
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“Continuous performance tests (CPT), such as the n -back, are frequently used to measure specific cognitive domains such as attention and working memory (Borgaro et al., 2003; Lamichhane et al., 2020; Owen et al., 2005) in clinical and research settings (Elliott, 2003; Schoofs et al., 2008).”
MethodCybersex addiction: Craving and cognitive processes
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“…higher cortisol levels were also associated with a slower response speed in the Simon task, which is in line with the observation that cortisol levels are negatively correlated with advanced executive functions (van Honk et al., 2003; Oei et al., 2006; Schoofs et al., 2008; Shields et al., 2015).”
The Chronic Exercise–Cognition Interaction in Older Adults
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ResultNo Effects of Acute Psychosocial Stress on Working Memory in Older People With Type 2 Diabetes
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“The n -back task yielded results similar to those obtained by Schoofs et al. (2008).”
MethodResultInfluentialStress, Emotion and Memory: The Good, the Bad and the Intriguing
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“…a trial, there is relatively little requirement for attentional shifting, inhibition, or manipulation of information relative to other working memory tasks for which significant acute stress effects have been reported (e.g., operation span, n-back, backward digit span; Schoofs et al., 2008, 2009).”
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Do emotionally negative events impair working memory as a result of intrusive thoughts?
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“A study alternating between 2 -back and 3 -back conditions to vary WM load over time found that inducing psychosocial stress impaired performance only in the first block of each difficulty level, compared to a control group (Schoofs et al., 2008).”
Acute stress impairs decision-making at varying levels of decision complexity
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Piñeyro, D. R., & Azzollini, S. (2022) · Revista Iberoamericana ConCiencia. · doi:10.32654/concienciaepg.7-2.8 · Cited by 1
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ResultLisica, D., Koso-Drljević, M., Stürmer, B., & Valt, C. (2023) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2023.2285822 · Cited by 3
“The causal e ff ect of anxiety on cognition is evident from studies that showed a performance decline after induction of anxiety, for example with the Trier Social Stress Task (e.g. Coy et al., 2011; Schoofs et al., 2008).”
MethodExploring the Interplay of Working Memory, Apathy, and Mood/Emotional Factors
di Courtelary, E. T., Scozia, G., Lasaponara, S., Aguzzetti, G., Doricchi, F., & Conversi, D. (2024) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci14010078 · Cited by 2
“One study [16] found that participants under stress had slower reaction times and fewer correct responses than the control group, regardless of task difficulty.”
BackgroundResultMaldonado, E. F., Nislin, M., Martínez-Escribano, A., Marín, L., Enguix, A., Álamo, A., López, C., Magarín, A., Ortíz, P., Muñoz, M., et al. (2019) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890.2019.1611777 · Cited by 3
A New Integrated Model for Multitasking during Web Searching
Alexopoulou, P., Morris, A., & Hepworth, M. E. (2014) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.07.088 · Cited by 2
Sawai, H., Furukawa, R., Inou, G., & Koyama, E. (2014) · IIAI International Congress on Advanced Applied Informatics (IIAI-AAI) · doi:10.1109/iiai-aai.2014.169 · Cited by 2
“For example, reaction times delay [1] and lapses increase [1, 2] due to sleep deprivation, working memory is induced due to psychosocial stress [3], and habit-formations delay due to strong stimulus [4].”
BackgroundAdrenal Stress Hormone Effects on Memory
Roozendaal, B., & Hermans, E. J. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-803592-4.00015-8 · Cited by 2
Irrational Decision-making under Acute Stress: The Perspective of Cognitive Function
Yamakawa, K., & Ohira, H. (2018) · Japanese Journal of Physiological Psychology and Psychophysiology · doi:10.5674/jjppp.1805si · Cited by 2
“…物学的反応が，意思決定およびその調整を担う認知処 理過程にどのように関連するかを明らかにした上で， そうした現象の背後にある神経・生物学的メカニズム について考察する。 不合理な意思決定 意思決定とは，ある複数の選択肢の中から1つある いはいくつかの選択肢を採択することである（竹村， 1996, 2009）。これまで心理学では，Simon (1957)を はじめ，実際の意思決定を記述することに焦点を当て た研究が行われてきた。代表的な記述的理論によれ ば，人間は必ずしも合理的に振る舞うことはできず，…”
Selective effects of psychosocial stress on plan based movement selection
Stoll, S. E. M., Mack, L., Scheib, J. P. P., Pruessner, J. C., & Randerath, J. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-09360-0 · Cited by 2
The Changes in Performance during Cognitive Load Inducing Tasks
Park, H.-J., Choe, Y., Na, Y., & Nam, K. (2011) · Communications in computer and information science · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-22309-9_45 · Cited by 2
An electrophysiological model of working memory performance
Baghdadi, G., Towhidkhah, F., & Rostami, R. (2017) · Cognitive Systems Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogsys.2017.04.005 · Cited by 2
Fornari, R. V., Aerni, A., de Quervain, D. J. ‐., & Roozendaal, B. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-16996-1_7 · Cited by 2
Stress and Glucocorticoid Effects on Learning and Memory
Marin, M., & LUPIEN, S. J. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118083222.ch12 · Cited by 2
Improving Respectful Maternity Care in Ethiopia
Sheferaw, E. D. (2021) · doi:10.33612/diss.182129166 · Cited by 2
Hua, Q., Li, Z., & Liu, Q. (2025) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2025.109117 · Cited by 1
Lanzke, K., Happel, O., Wurmb, T. E., Meybohm, P., & Hölzing, C. R. (2026) · Resuscitation · doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2026.110993 · Cited by 2
Guo, Z., Yang, L., Li, Y., Lü, H., Qiu, R., & Zhu, X. (2026) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2026.100669 · Cited by 1
“Working memory performance has been shown to decline under stress (Lieberman et al., 2016; Santos-Carrasco & De la Casa, 2024; Schoofs et al., 2008).”
Esipova, V., Tschorn, M., Böttger, S. J., Seiffert, J., Förstner, B. R., Seegert, T., Rapp, M. A., & Koller-Schlaud, K. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2026.1674802 · Cited by 1
“The positive relationship between the NVS-score and stress found in our study is consistent with previous fi ndings that reported signi fi cant associations between stress and negative affectivity (62, 63).”
Assessment of brain haemodynamic responses using optical topography modality
Hani, A. F. M., Feng, Y. X., Tang, T. B., & Kiguchi, M. (2015) · doi:10.1109/icobe.2015.7235132 · Cited by 1
“It has been reported that mood states play an important role in modulating the brain cognitive functions, which are associated with working memory [1-3].”
BackgroundScrivner, C. (2016) · BIOS · doi:10.1893/bios-d-14-00042.1 · Cited by 1
“However, chronic stress has been linked to a plethora of ailments, including lack of sleep, poor diet, impaired working memory, hypertension, heart disease, and diabetes (Drake et al., 2004; Kalimo et al., 2000; McEwen et al., 2010; Miller et al., 2011; Oei et al., 2012; Sapolsky 2004; Schoofs et al., 2008).”
BackgroundTHE EFFECT OF WORKING MEMORY LOAD ON PREFRONTAL CORTEX ACTIVATION: AN OPTICAL TOPOGRAPHY STUDY
Hani, A. F. M., Feng, Y. X., Tang, T. B., & Kiguchi, M. (2015) · ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences · Cited by 1
Performa Inhibitory Control dengan Induksi Sing-a-Song Stress Test pada Dewasa Awal
Kurniawan, A., & Kusrohmaniah, S. (2018) · Jurnal Psikologi · doi:10.22146/jpsi.25846 · Cited by 1
“Sebaliknya, tingkat stres yang rendah ditunjukkan dengan skor afek negatif yang rendah (Schoofs et al., 2008; Echterhoff & Wolf, 2012).”
BackgroundTraining in process control: supporting performance in consideration of operator characteristics
Burkolter, D. (2010) · reroDoc Digital Library · Cited by 1
McGaugh, J. L., & Roozendaal, B. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-809324-5.21092-4 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Schoofs, D., Preuß, D., & Wolf, O. T.
- Affiliations
- Ruhr University Bochum (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Wolf, Oliver T.
- ORCID
- Wolf, Oliver T.
- Venue
- Psychoneuroendocrinology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2008-06
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 643-653
- ISSN
- 0306-4530 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2106673407
- Semantic Scholar
- 87cef5ba5bb29154704cb81de2376ff5360b6a6f
- Cited by
- 483
- References
- 93
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 34 · 2021: 36 · 2020: 37 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 27 · 2016: 40 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 29 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 11.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychoneuroendocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft
- Universität Bielefeld
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- psychosocial stress, working memory, n-back task, Trier Social Stress Test, salivary cortisol, salivary amylase, hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, sympathetic nervous system, negative affect, acute stress, task difficulty, reaction time, cognitive performance
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Affect, alpha-Amylases, Analysis of Variance, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Male, Memory, Memory Disorders, Reaction Time, Saliva, Stress, Psychological, Task Performance and Analysis, Time Factors
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