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Electric vehicle lithium-ion battery recycled content standards for the US – targets, costs, and environmental impacts
Open accessAbstract
Lithium-ion battery recycling can decrease life cycle environmental impacts of electric vehicles (EVs) and assist in securing domestic supply chains. However, the US, the third largest market for EVs, has no policies for recycling of batteries at their end-of-life. The European Union has proposed recycled content standards (RCSs) to help drive a circular battery ecosystem. This analysis calculates feasible RCSs for the US based on future sale projections, techno-economic assessment, life cycle assessment, and material flow analysis. Using a 95% confidence interval, results show that 11–12% of cobalt, 7–8% of lithium, and 10–12% of nickel demand in 2030 and 15–18%, 9–11%, and 15–17%, respectively, in 2035, could be met by retired supply assuming closed-loop recycling. While domestic recycling can be profitable at scale and reduce environmental impacts, it is more expensive than exporting to China for recycling. Consequently, policy is likely needed to ensure critical materials are recycled domestically.
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“While materials from battery recycling are expected to reduce environmental damage, raw material extraction will need to provide the lion’s share of battery materials in the foreseeable future41–47.”
From Carbon footprint distributions of lithium-ion batteries and their materials (2024) · cites this paper as [41]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Dunn, J., Kendall, A., & Slattery, M.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Davis (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kendall, Alissa
- Venue
- Resources, Conservation and Recycling
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-10
- Volume
- 185
- Pages
- 106488
- ISSN
- 0921-3449 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4284960973
- Cited by
- 151
- References
- 47
- Citations by year
- 2026: 37 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 2
- FWCI
- 10.75
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Resources Conservation and Recycling (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- U.S. Department of Transportation
- National Center for Sustainable Transportation Technology
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Metals and Alloys › Extraction and Separation Processes
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electric Vehicles and Infrastructure
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Recycling and Waste Management Techniques
- Keywords
- lithium-ion battery recycling, electric vehicles, critical raw materials, cobalt, lithium, nickel, closed-loop recycling, recycling costs, end-of-life batteries, circular economy, recycling policy
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