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Cited by 337Alzheimer's disease research and treatmentsPluripotent Stem Cells ResearchNeuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms

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PSEN1 Mutant iPSC-Derived Model Reveals Severe Astrocyte Pathology in Alzheimer's Disease

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Oksanen, Minna, Petersen, Andrew J., Naumenko, Nikolay, Puttonen, Katja, Lehtonen, Šárka, Gubert Olivé, Max, Shakirzyanova, Anastasia, Leskelä, Stina, Sarajärvi, Timo, Viitanen, Matti, Rinne, Juha O., Hiltunen, Mikko, Haapasalo, Annakaisa, Giniatullin, Rashid, Tavi, Pasi, Zhang, Su-Chun, Kanninen, Katja M., Hämäläinen, Riikka H., Koistinaho, Jari·2017·Stem Cell Reports
DOI 10.1016/j.stemcr.2017.10.016PMC PMC5785689
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Abstract

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder and the leading cause of cognitive impairment. Due to insufficient understanding of the disease mechanisms, there are no efficient therapies for AD. Most studies have focused on neuronal cells, but astrocytes have also been suggested to contribute to AD pathology. We describe here the generation of functional astrocytes from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from AD patients with PSEN1 ΔE9 mutation, as well as healthy and gene-corrected isogenic controls. AD astrocytes manifest hallmarks of disease pathology, including increased β-amyloid production, altered cytokine release, and dysregulated Ca 2+ homeostasis. Furthermore, due to altered metabolism, AD astrocytes show increased oxidative stress and reduced lactate secretion, as well as compromised neuronal supportive function, as evidenced by altering Ca 2+ transients in healthy neurons. Our results reveal an important role for astrocytes in AD pathology and highlight the strength of iPSC-derived models for brain diseases.

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Figures

Figure 1 Differentiation and Characterization of iPSC-Derived Astrocytes (A) Schematic illustrating the astrocyte differentiation protocol. NDM, neural differentiation medium; SB, SB431542; LDN, LDN193189; ADM, astrocyte differentiation medium. (B) Relative gene expression of GFAP during astrocytic differentiation shown as fold change to iPSCs. Representative data from three independent differentiations. (C) Representative immunocytochemistry images of cells dissociated from 3- or 6-month-old spheres stained for TUJ1 (green) and GFAP (red). Nuclei are stained with Hoechst. Scale bars, 100 μm. (D) Representative immunocytochemistry images of astrocytes from control, AD, and isogenic control lines matured with CNTF and BMP4 for 7 days, stained for S100β (green) and GFAP (red). Nuclei are stained with Hoechst. Scale bars, 50 μm. (E) Relative gene expression levels of GFAP and S100B in astrocytes shown as fold change to iPSC-derived neurons (astrocytes, n = 14 lines; neurons, n = 5 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (F) Relative gene expression levels of SLC1A2, SLC1A3, and AQP4 in astrocytes shown as fold change to iPSC-derived neurons (astrocytes, n = 14 lines; neurons, n = 5 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (G) Representative FACS histogram of glucose uptake analyzed by fluorescent glucose analog. Gray area shows untreated cells and the black line shows cells incubated with 2-NBDG; 97.5% of the cells were positive for 2-NBDG after 30 min of incubation. (H) Glutathione secreted to media (astrocytes, n = 14 lines; neurons, n = 5 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (I) Propagation of intercellular calcium waves. Representative images of Fluo4-loaded cells are shown 4 and 20 s after electrical stimulation. Scale bar, 50 μm. All data are presented as mean ± SEM. See also Figures S1–S3.
Figure 1 Differentiation and Characterization of iPSC-Derived Astrocytes (A) Schematic illustrating the astrocyte differentiation protocol. NDM, neural differentiation medium; SB, SB431542; LDN, LDN193189; ADM, astrocyte differentiation medium. (B) Relative gene expression of GFAP during astrocytic differentiation shown as fold change to iPSCs. Representative data from three independent differentiations. (C) Representative immunocytochemistry images of cells dissociated from 3- or 6-month-old spheres stained for TUJ1 (green) and GFAP (red). Nuclei are stained with Hoechst. Scale bars, 100 μm. (D) Representative immunocytochemistry images of astrocytes from control, AD, and isogenic control lines matured with CNTF and BMP4 for 7 days, stained for S100β (green) and GFAP (red). Nuclei are stained with Hoechst. Scale bars, 50 μm. (E) Relative gene expression levels of GFAP and S100B in astrocytes shown as fold change to iPSC-derived neurons (astrocytes, n = 14 lines; neurons, n = 5 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (F) Relative gene expression levels of SLC1A2, SLC1A3, and AQP4 in astrocytes shown as fold change to iPSC-derived neurons (astrocytes, n = 14 lines; neurons, n = 5 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (G) Representative FACS histogram of glucose uptake analyzed by fluorescent glucose analog. Gray area shows untreated cells and the black line shows cells incubated with 2-NBDG; 97.5% of the cells were positive for 2-NBDG after 30 min of incubation. (H) Glutathione secreted to media (astrocytes, n = 14 lines; neurons, n = 5 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (I) Propagation of intercellular calcium waves. Representative images of Fluo4-loaded cells are shown 4 and 20 s after electrical stimulation. Scale bar, 50 μm. All data are presented as mean ± SEM. See also Figures S1–S3.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 2 AD Astrocytes Present Hallmarks of β-Amyloid Pathology (A) Representative western blot images of the endoproteolysis of PS-1 in astrocytes. PS-1 FL was not detected in control and isogenic control samples. GAPDH was used as loading control. PS-1 FL, full-length PS-1; PS-1 CTF, C-terminal fragment of PS-1. (B and C) Quantification of PS-1 CTF (B) and APP (C) levels. Results normalized against GAPDH and shown as percentage of control (CTRL, n = 6 lines; isogenic CTRL, n = 4 replicates from 2 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (D–F) Aβ1–42 (D), Aβ1–40 (E), and Aβ1–42/1–40 ratio (F) were quantified from media with or without γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT and normalized to total protein content. Three independent experiments (CTRL, n = 6 lines; isogenic CTRL, n = 4 replicates from 2 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (G) γ-Secretase activity shown as percentage of control. γ-Secretase inhibitor L685,458 was added to validate the assay (CTRL, n = 6 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; GSI-treated, n = 2 lines). (H) Percentage of cells positive for HiLyte 488-labeled Aβ1–42 representing Aβ uptake quantified by FACS. Three independent experiments (CTRL, n = 6 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). All data are presented as mean ± SEM. See also Figures S1 and S4.
Figure 2 AD Astrocytes Present Hallmarks of β-Amyloid Pathology (A) Representative western blot images of the endoproteolysis of PS-1 in astrocytes. PS-1 FL was not detected in control and isogenic control samples. GAPDH was used as loading control. PS-1 FL, full-length PS-1; PS-1 CTF, C-terminal fragment of PS-1. (B and C) Quantification of PS-1 CTF (B) and APP (C) levels. Results normalized against GAPDH and shown as percentage of control (CTRL, n = 6 lines; isogenic CTRL, n = 4 replicates from 2 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (D–F) Aβ1–42 (D), Aβ1–40 (E), and Aβ1–42/1–40 ratio (F) were quantified from media with or without γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT and normalized to total protein content. Three independent experiments (CTRL, n = 6 lines; isogenic CTRL, n = 4 replicates from 2 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (G) γ-Secretase activity shown as percentage of control. γ-Secretase inhibitor L685,458 was added to validate the assay (CTRL, n = 6 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; GSI-treated, n = 2 lines). (H) Percentage of cells positive for HiLyte 488-labeled Aβ1–42 representing Aβ uptake quantified by FACS. Three independent experiments (CTRL, n = 6 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). All data are presented as mean ± SEM. See also Figures S1 and S4.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 3 Ca2+ Homeostasis Is Disturbed in AD Astrocytes (A) Dynamics of Ca2+ leakage from the ER in the presence of 50 μM ryanodine, 100 μM 2APB, and 1 μM thapsigargin. Solid lines represent average traces with SEM (in gray) and dotted lines the linear fit for slope measurement. Representative traces from one control and one AD line are shown. (B) Quantification of the rate of Ca2+ leakage (slope) from the linear range of the traces. Data are presented as mean ± SEM from three independent experiments (CTRL, n = 814 cells; AD, n = 540 cells; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). See also Figure S5.
Figure 3 Ca2+ Homeostasis Is Disturbed in AD Astrocytes (A) Dynamics of Ca2+ leakage from the ER in the presence of 50 μM ryanodine, 100 μM 2APB, and 1 μM thapsigargin. Solid lines represent average traces with SEM (in gray) and dotted lines the linear fit for slope measurement. Representative traces from one control and one AD line are shown. (B) Quantification of the rate of Ca2+ leakage (slope) from the linear range of the traces. Data are presented as mean ± SEM from three independent experiments (CTRL, n = 814 cells; AD, n = 540 cells; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). See also Figure S5.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 4 AD Astrocytes Show Altered Cytokine Release in Pro-inflammatory Conditions Concentrations of IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, GM-CSF, and CCL5 were quantified from media after stimulation with TNFα (50 ng/mL) and IL-1β (10 ng/mL) for 48 hr with CBA assay. Results are shown as fold change to control lines. DAPT: cells were treated with γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT simultaneously with TNFα and IL-1β stimulation. Data are presented as mean ± SEM from three independent experiments (CTRL, n = 6 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; ∗∗p < 0.01, ∗∗∗p < 0.001). See also Figure S3.
Figure 4 AD Astrocytes Show Altered Cytokine Release in Pro-inflammatory Conditions Concentrations of IL-2, IL-6, IL-10, GM-CSF, and CCL5 were quantified from media after stimulation with TNFα (50 ng/mL) and IL-1β (10 ng/mL) for 48 hr with CBA assay. Results are shown as fold change to control lines. DAPT: cells were treated with γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT simultaneously with TNFα and IL-1β stimulation. Data are presented as mean ± SEM from three independent experiments (CTRL, n = 6 lines; AD, n = 6 lines; ∗∗p < 0.01, ∗∗∗p < 0.001). See also Figure S3.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 5 Altered Mitochondrial Metabolism in AD Astrocytes Leads to Increased ROS Production and Reduced Lactate Secretion (A) Oxygen consumption rate (OCR) following sequential additions of 10 μM glucose (a), 1 μM oligomycin (b), 1 μM FCCP (c), and 1 μM antimycin A and rotenone (d). Results are normalized to protein content. Three independent experiments (n = 30 replicates/group from 2 isogenic pairs). (B) Extracellular acidification rate following sequential additions of 10 μM glucose (a) and 1 μM oligomycin (b). Results are normalized to protein content. Three independent experiments (n = 30 replicates/group from 2 isogenic pairs). (C–E) Basal respiration (C) and basal glycolysis (D) were quantified after glucose addition from OCR and ECAR curves, respectively. The OCR/ECAR ratio (E) was calculated after glucose addition to determine the metabolic profile of astrocytes. DAPT: cells were treated with γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT before experiments. ∗∗∗p < 0.001. (F) Representative median fluorescent intensity FACS histograms from CellROX analysis. Non-stained cells are shown in gray, isogenic control cells in black, and AD cells in turquoise. Menadione (MND)-treated cells (violet) were used as a positive control. (G) Quantification of ROS production with CellROX green probe showing median fluorescent intensities (MFI) as a percentage of control group. Three independent experiments (n = 25–30 replicates/group from 2 isogenic pairs; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (H) Lactate release was quantified from media with an enzymatic assay and normalized to protein content. Three independent experiments (n = 30 replicates/group from 2 isogenic pairs; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). All data are presented as mean ± SEM. See also Figure S1.
Figure 5 Altered Mitochondrial Metabolism in AD Astrocytes Leads to Increased ROS Production and Reduced Lactate Secretion (A) Oxygen consumption rate (OCR) following sequential additions of 10 μM glucose (a), 1 μM oligomycin (b), 1 μM FCCP (c), and 1 μM antimycin A and rotenone (d). Results are normalized to protein content. Three independent experiments (n = 30 replicates/group from 2 isogenic pairs). (B) Extracellular acidification rate following sequential additions of 10 μM glucose (a) and 1 μM oligomycin (b). Results are normalized to protein content. Three independent experiments (n = 30 replicates/group from 2 isogenic pairs). (C–E) Basal respiration (C) and basal glycolysis (D) were quantified after glucose addition from OCR and ECAR curves, respectively. The OCR/ECAR ratio (E) was calculated after glucose addition to determine the metabolic profile of astrocytes. DAPT: cells were treated with γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT before experiments. ∗∗∗p < 0.001. (F) Representative median fluorescent intensity FACS histograms from CellROX analysis. Non-stained cells are shown in gray, isogenic control cells in black, and AD cells in turquoise. Menadione (MND)-treated cells (violet) were used as a positive control. (G) Quantification of ROS production with CellROX green probe showing median fluorescent intensities (MFI) as a percentage of control group. Three independent experiments (n = 25–30 replicates/group from 2 isogenic pairs; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). (H) Lactate release was quantified from media with an enzymatic assay and normalized to protein content. Three independent experiments (n = 30 replicates/group from 2 isogenic pairs; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). All data are presented as mean ± SEM. See also Figure S1.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central
Figure 6 AD Astrocytes Influence the Calcium Signaling Activity of Healthy Neurons (A) Representative immunocytochemistry image of the thin-layer Matrigel co-culture with MAP2-positive neurons (green) and GFAP-positive astrocytes (red). Nuclei are stained with Hoechst. Scale bar, 50 μm. (B) Representative electrogram of isogenic control neurons co-cultured with isogenic control astrocytes showing Ca2+ amplitudes in response to applications of glutamate and glycine, GABA, KCl, and ionomycin. (C) Representative electrogram of isogenic control neurons co-cultured with AD astrocytes showing Ca2+ amplitudes in response to applications of glutamate and glycine, GABA, KCl, and ionomycin. (D) Quantification of the Ca2+ amplitudes in response to glutamate and glycine application. The x axis shows the genotype of the astrocytes (isogenic CTRL, n = 35 cells; AD, n = 134 cells from 3 independent experiments with 2 isogenic pairs; ∗∗p < 0.01). (E) Quantification of the Ca2+ amplitudes in response to GABA application. The x axis shows the genotype of the astrocytes (isogenic CTRL, n = 27 cells; AD, n = 132 cells from 3 independent experiments with 2 isogenic pairs; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). Data are presented as mean ± SEM. See also Figure S1.
Figure 6 AD Astrocytes Influence the Calcium Signaling Activity of Healthy Neurons (A) Representative immunocytochemistry image of the thin-layer Matrigel co-culture with MAP2-positive neurons (green) and GFAP-positive astrocytes (red). Nuclei are stained with Hoechst. Scale bar, 50 μm. (B) Representative electrogram of isogenic control neurons co-cultured with isogenic control astrocytes showing Ca2+ amplitudes in response to applications of glutamate and glycine, GABA, KCl, and ionomycin. (C) Representative electrogram of isogenic control neurons co-cultured with AD astrocytes showing Ca2+ amplitudes in response to applications of glutamate and glycine, GABA, KCl, and ionomycin. (D) Quantification of the Ca2+ amplitudes in response to glutamate and glycine application. The x axis shows the genotype of the astrocytes (isogenic CTRL, n = 35 cells; AD, n = 134 cells from 3 independent experiments with 2 isogenic pairs; ∗∗p < 0.01). (E) Quantification of the Ca2+ amplitudes in response to GABA application. The x axis shows the genotype of the astrocytes (isogenic CTRL, n = 27 cells; AD, n = 132 cells from 3 independent experiments with 2 isogenic pairs; ∗∗∗p < 0.001). Data are presented as mean ± SEM. See also Figure S1.CC BY-NC-ND · PubMed Central

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Metadata

Authors
Oksanen, M., Petersen, A. J., Naumenko, N., Puttonen, K., Lehtonen, Š., Gubert Olivé, M., Shakirzyanova, A., Leskelä, S., Sarajärvi, T., Viitanen, M., Rinne, J. O., Hiltunen, M., Haapasalo, A., Giniatullin, R., Tavi, P., Zhang, S.-C., Kanninen, K. M., Hämäläinen, R. H., & Koistinaho, J.
Affiliations
  • University of Eastern Finland (FI)
  • University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
  • Karolinska University Hospital (SE)
  • University of Turku (FI)
  • University of Wisconsin System (US)
ORCID
Venue
Stem Cell Reports
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2017-12
Volume
9
Issue
6
Pages
1885-1897
ISSN
2213-6711 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.stemcr.2017.10.016
PMC
PMC5785689
OpenAlex
W2768957663
Cited by
332
References
65
Citations by year
2026: 27 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 46 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 43 · 2018: 17
FWCI
22.27
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Stem Cell Reports (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • UEF eRepo (University of Eastern Finland) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • UTUPub (University of Turku) (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • Itä-Suomen Yliopisto
  • Academy of Finland
  • Tekes
  • Emil Aaltosen Säätiö
  • Sigrid Juséliuksen Säätiö
  • Horizon 2020 (643417)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
  • Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Pluripotent Stem Cells Research
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Keywords
Alzheimer's disease, astrocytes, induced pluripotent stem cells, iPSC-derived astrocytes, amyloid-beta production, cytokine production, calcium homeostasis, oxidative stress, lactate secretion, disease modeling, isogenic controls
MeSH terms
Alzheimer Disease, Animals, Astrocytes, Brain, Calcium, Gene Expression Regulation, Humans, Mitochondria, Neurons, Amyloid beta-Peptides, Oxidative Stress, Lactic Acid, Presenilin-1, Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells

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