Trait emotional intelligence, positive and negative emotions in first and foreign language classes: A mixed-methods approach

“A number of studies have connected FLE to FLA, confirming that they are negatively related to each other in various FL contexts (Dewaele et al., 2018, 2019; Li & Xu, 2019; Li et al., 2020; Resnik & Dewaele, 2019).”

“The fi ndings showed a moderate negative correlation between FLE and FLCA emotions, indicating that it is possible to experience both a high level of FLE and FLCA, or neither one nor the other (Resnik and Dewaele 2020).”

“…emotions, there has been a special interest to enjoyment among L2 researchers (Botes, Dewaele, and Grei ff 2021; Dewaele and MacIntyre 2014; Dewaele et al. 2016; Dewaele et al. 2017; Khajavy, MacIntyre, and Barabadi 2018; Li, Huang, and Li 2021; Papi and Khajavy 2021; Resnik and Dewaele 2020).”

“It was found that FLA is negatively and FLA is positively related to emotional intelligence, a variable related to better language performance (Resnik & Dewaele, 2020).”

“Recently, Resnik and Dewaele (2020) compared students ’ trait EI, FLE, and FLA in L1 and FL classes and further revealed that the correlation between trait EI and FLA was stronger than that between trait EI and FLE in both L1 and FL classrooms.”

“Emails: mkruk@uz.zgora.pl; mkanglik@gmail.com taught to them (Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2014; Resnik and Dewaele, 2020; Richards, 2020).”

“The researchers utilized the Trait EI Questionnaire (Petrides, 2009), which has demonstrated strong validity and reliability and has been widely applied in previous studies (e.g., Di Fabio & Saklofske, 2021; Li, 2020; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020) to assess participants’ trait EI.”

“Also, Resnik and Dewaele (2020) analysed and reported the internal consistency of the FLE scale as high (Cronbach ’ s alpha = .843, N = 12).”

“Furthermore, in this holistic approach, scholars no longer view positive emotions as the mere flip side of negative emotions, but as independent variables (Resnik & Dewaele, 2020; Shao et al., 2020).”

“For instance, explorations were carried out investigating bilingual and multilingual learners’ FLE [47], the same individual’s FLE in learning first and foreign languages [48], and how different target languages can influence L2 students’ learning enjoyment [49].”

“…FLA and FLE; the Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 2 August 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 737613 summary of findings of such studies highlights a fairly negative relationship between these two concepts (Dewaele and Dewaele, 2017; Dewaele and Alfawzan, 2018; Resnik and Dewaele, 2020).”

“…the effect of foreign language learning (Pishghadam, 2009), began to attract attention from researchers (Abdolrezapour and Tavakoli, 2012; Ponikwia, 2015; Shakarami and Khajehei, 2015; Li et al., 2020; Mavrou and Dewaele, 2020; Resnik and Dewaele, 2020; Irini, 2021; Nasim and Parisa, 2021).”

“…and Grei ff 2021); the relations with other variables such as trait emotional intelligence (trait EI) (Chen et al. 2021; Li2020 ; Li and Xu 2019; Resnik and Dewaele 2020, 2021), grit (Wei, Gao, and Wang 2019), willingness to communicate (e.g. Dewaele and Dewaele 2018; Khajavy, MacIntyre, and…”

“Notably, virtual environments appear to disrupt the typical inverse relationship between foreign language enjoyment and FLA observed in physical classrooms, suggesting fundamental differences in emotional dynamics across learning modalities (Resnik & Dewaele, 2020).”

“…Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016; Jiang & Dewaele, 2019; Li, 2020; Saito et al., 2018), relative standing in the group (e.g., Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Dewaele & Dewaele, 2017; Dewaele et al., 2018), number of languages known (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014), and TEI (e.g., Li, 2020; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020).”

“Finally, there were only three comparative studies on FLA, probing into FLA differences among the participants (Resnik and Dewaele, 2020; Hamada and Takaki, 2021; Chen et al., 2022).”

“…in both students and teachers in ESL classrooms as well as in English-medium university social spaces (Benesch 2017; De Costa et al. 2020; Ding and Benesch 2018; Hillman 2022; Hopkyns and Gkonou 2023; Liyanage 2023; Resnik and Dewaele 2020; Sah 2023; Ş ahan and Ş ahan 2023; Yuan et al. 2023).”

“…to relational factors, such as fear of losing face amongst peers, and fear of being negatively judged by peers and teachers (Horwitz et al., 1986) which indicates that even the motivating effects of moderate anxiety as proposed by Resnik and Dewaele (2020) can be understood in relational terms.”

“…EI in SLA was dominated by (1) the relationship between EI and various L2 emotions (e.g. Chen et al., 2021; Dewaele et al., 2008; Li et al., 2021; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020), (2) the mechanism of EI and L2 learning outcomes (e.g. Ghaemi & Anari, 2014; Li & Xu, 2019; Shao et al., 2013) and (3) how…”

“…communicative competence (SCC) while reducing negative ones such as foreign language anxiety (FLA), thereby enhancing learners ’ language development and overall learning experience (Dewaele et al. 2019; Khajavy et al. 2018; MacIntyre and Gregersen 2012a, 2012b; Resnik and Dewaele 2020).”

“We used the Chinese version of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire - Short Form (Petrides, 2009), which has shown good validity and reliability and been widely used in previous studies (e.g., Li, 2020; Resnik and Dewaele, 2020; Di Fabio and Saklofske, 2021), to estimate participants’ TEI.”

“This finding did not support our hypotheses 3 and 4, and was not consistent with either the Trait Emotional Intelligence theory or findings from prior studies (Petrides, 2010; Rensik & Dewaele, 2020; Romanelli et al., 2006).”

“Emotions are key determinants of how and even whether students learn (Resnik and Dewaele 2020).”

“The links between FL emotions and trait emotional intelligence (TEI) (e.g. Li, 2020; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020), willingness to communicate (Dewaele, 2019b), L2 grit (e.g. Lee, 2020; Sudina et al., 2020), and flow (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2024) have been identified, too.”

“On the other side, “learning a second/foreign language (L2) is an emotionally-charged experience” (Pawlak et al., 2021, p. 2) that is highly inter-twined with students’ positive and negative emotions which exerts influence on their perceptions of learning (Resnik & Dewaele, 2020; Richards, 2020).”

“This can energize and motivate them and develop confidence in themselves to learning as well as ask questions to their teachers (Brody, 2004; Cherniss et al., 2006; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020).”

“Emotions, encompassing both negative and positive affective states, have been observed to exert profound effects on second language (L2) learners, shaping their attitudes and dispositions toward the language learning process (Resnik & Dewaele, 2020; Richards, 2022).”

“Five hundred and ten European language students were surveyed, and the results showed that online sessions helped them learn the language more quickly and with less stress (Resnik and Dewaele, 2020).”

“EI encompasses key dimensions such as emotional attention, clarity, and repair (Li and Dewaele, 2020; Resnik and Dewaele, 2020).”

“Furthermore, EI helps learners manage the stress and anxiety often associated with language learning, which allows them to focus on learning activities and build resilience in the face of challenges, thereby leading to greater proficiency (Li et al., 2021; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020; Shao et al., 2013).”

“Self-efficacy beliefs are thought to lead students to suitable performance levels by enhancing their commitment, effort, and perseverance [26] and by reducing the occurrence of negative emotions, such as anxiety [27,28].”

“Teachers and students, accustomed to in-person classes, were forced out of their comfort zones (Resnik & Dewaele, 2020) into compulsory distance education (Gao & Zhang, 2020).”

“Instead, individuals could be inspired or propelled by worry to study harder or try the learning activity again until they succeed (Resnik & Dewaele, 2020).”

“For example, Resnik and Dewaele (2020) found that German students with higher EI reported greater classroom enjoyment and lower anxiety.”

“…affect language learners’ motivation to acquire and use a new language, language learning outcomes, in-class and out-of-class dynamics, overall linguistic proficiency, etc. (Alrabai, 2022; Khajavy & Aghaee, 2022; Li & Li, 2023; Me´ndez Lo´pez & Fabela Ca´rdenas, 2014; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020).”

“…pre-post design, the current study accentuates the variances of foreign language emotions, which indicates that the static, monolithic understanding about foreign language emotions, usually found in cross-sectional studies (e.g. Li et al., 2020; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020), is not the only answer.”

“Learners’ emotions, positive or negative, exert influence on the process of language learning and their attitude toward what they learn (Resnik and Dewaele, 2020; Richards, 2020).”

“…of regulating negative emotions (Ciarrochi and Mayer, 2007; Li, 2020; Li et al., 2021), generating and utilizing positive emotions, promoting critical thinking, and optimizing FLL outcomes (Irini, 2021; Li et al. 2020; Mavrou and Dewaele, 2020; Nasim and Parisa, 2021; Resnik and Dewaele, 2020).”

“…collection of quantitative and qualitative data considered together at the level of analysis, if not before; see Brutt-Griffler & Jang, 2022; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020; and Sánchez-Hernández, 2018), though explanatory sequential (when quantitative data is collected first, then qualitative,…”

“Such results are consistent with study by Resnik and Dewaele (2020), that examined that when employees experience language anxiety in the workplace, it can lead to a range of negative emotions and outcomes.”

“The great relevance of TEI for both learners’ emotions and achievement in the FL class has already been demonstrated in previous studies (e.g. Li 2020; Resnik and Dewaele 2020).”

“Moreover, (Dewaele, 2020) additionally demonstrates that individuals with proficient emotion regulation skills are often more adept at managing uncertainty and anxiety during organizational transition.”

“…and classroom social environment (X. Sun et al. 2022), as well as internal factors such as big five personality traits (de la Fuente et al. 2020), trait emotional intelligence (Resnik and Dewaele 2020), and achievement goals (Huang 2011), could significantly affect students ’ achievement emotions.”

“They claim that emotional intelligence is a plausible precursor for motivation since high emotional intelligence could better regulate and manage negative emotions as well as enhance positive emotion to experience them for longer and lasting periods (Resnik & Dewaele, 2020).”

“…reinforcement, such as teachers’ compliment, encouragement, motivation, and acknowledgement of learners' accomplishments, was a prevalent pedagogical method that had been linked to ESL/ EFL learning enjoyment (Elahi & Taherian, 2020; Jiang & Dewaele, 2019; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020; Sampson, 2020).”

“…encouragement, motivation, and acknowledgment of students' accomplishments, is one of the most popular pedagogical strategies that has been linked to language learning enjoyment among ESL/EFL students (Elahi & Taherian, 2020; Jiang & Dewaele, 2019; Resnik & Dewaele, 2020; Sampson, 2020).”

“Emotions such as anxiety, enjoyment, and confidence are known to impact cognitive processes like attention, memory, and problem-solving [1], while also shaping learners’ motivation and willingness to engage [2].”

“In this study, language learning engagement is defined as students’ behavioral, cognitive, and emotional investment in EFL-specific activities such as class discussions, writing, and reading [7–9] .”

“…variables such as learners ’ gender (Dewaele et al. 2016), personality (Horwitz 1986), language pro fi ciency (Tao and He 2021), and other emotional aspects (Dewaele and Alfawzan 2018; Resnik and Dewaele 2020) have been investigated by scholars with the help of quantitative analysis.”

“Cognition has been found to predict enjoyment (Rezazadeh and Zarrinabadi 2020), and emotional intelligence also positively correlates with enjoyment (Li 2020, Resnik and Dewaele 2020) .”

“…own stress instead functions as a stabi-liser of the classroom’s collective emotional climate, modelling calm engagement with error and uncertainty [14; 15] – which explains why teacher emotional intelligence as a whole, and not only isolated empathic gestures, is required, since a teacher’s…”

“However, high EI, along with students’ well-being, decreases the excessive anxiety levels (Chen et al., 2024) and increases students’ emotions and fosters decision-making (Resnik & Dewaele, 2020).”