CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 850EFL/ESL Teaching and LearningCommunication in Education and HealthcareSecond Language Learning and Teaching

Foreign language enjoyment and anxiety: The effect of teacher and learner variables

Dewaele, Jean-Marc, Witney, John, Saito, Kazuya, Dewaele, Livia·2018·Language Teaching Research
DOI 10.1177/1362168817692161
Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Positive psychology has boosted interest in the positive as well as the negative emotions that Foreign Language learners experience. The present study examines whether – and to what extent – foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language (FL) classroom anxiety (FLCA) are linked to a range of learner internal variables and teacher/classroom-specific variables within one specific educational context. Participants were 189 British high school students learning various FLs. Higher levels of FLE were linked to higher scores on attitudes towards the FL, the FL teacher, FL use in class, proportion of time spent on speaking, relative standing and stage of development. Lower levels FLCA were linked to higher scores on attitudes towards the FL, relative standing and stage of development. FLCA thus seems less related to teacher and teacher practices than FLE. The pedagogical implication is that teachers should strive to boost FLE rather than worry too much about students’ FLCA.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This questionnaire study of 189 British high school foreign language learners found that foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) are weakly negatively related and largely separate emotion dimensions. FLE was linked to more learner-internal and teacher/classroom variables than FLCA, leading the authors to advise teachers to focus on boosting enjoyment rather than worrying primarily about anxiety.

Key findings

  • FLE and FLCA had a small significant negative correlation, \(r(188) = -.194, p < .007\), sharing only 3.8% of variance; mean FLE was 3.9 (\(SD = 0.6\)) and mean FLCA was 2.4 (\(SD = 0.8\)).
  • FLE was significantly linked to age, \(F(6,189) = 4.0, p < .001, \eta^2 = .118\); gender, with females higher than males (4.2 vs. 3.8, \(t = 3.7, p < .0001, d = 0.54\)); FL level, \(F(3,185) = 4.4, p < .005, \eta^2 = .066\); attitude towards the FL, \(F(3,185) = 24.8, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .287, d = 1.27\); attitude towards the teacher, \(F(4,184) = 16.7, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .267, d = 1.2\); teacher FL use, \(F(4,184) = 6.2, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .118, d = .73\); time spent speaking, \(F(6,182) = 2.5, p < .023, \eta^2 = .076\); and teacher predictability negatively, \(F(3,185) = 3.9, p < .001, \eta^2 = .06, d = .50\).
  • FLCA was significantly linked to gender, with females higher than males (2.6 vs. 2.3, \(t = 2.5, p < .014, d = 0.37\)); FL level, \(F(3,185) = 12.3, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .166, d = .89\); relative standing among peers, \(F(3,185) = 13.4, p < .0001, \eta^2 = .076, d = .57\); and attitude towards the FL, \(F(3,185) = 4.0, p < .009, \eta^2 = .069, d = .54\). Teacher/classroom variables were mostly unrelated to FLCA.
  • Multilingualism was unrelated to both FLE and FLCA. The results section reports relative standing was not significantly linked to FLE, although the abstract and conclusion list it among FLE correlates.

Methods

  • Participants were 189 high school students (49 females, 140 males) aged 12–18 from two Greater London schools: Dame Alice Owen’s (\(n = 63\)) and Westminster School (\(n = 126\)); most studied French (\(n = 144\)), and the sample was described as very good FL students.
  • An anonymous online questionnaire collected demographics, attitudes towards the FL and teacher, teacher FL use, time spent on reading/writing/listening/speaking, teacher predictability, 10 FLE items from Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014; Cronbach alpha = .88), and 8 FLCA items from the FLCAS (Cronbach alpha = .85), using 5-point Likert scales.
  • Analyses included Pearson correlation, independent t-tests, one-way ANOVAs, and Gabriel post-hoc tests, with effect sizes interpreted using Plonsky and Oswald’s benchmarks.

Limitations

  • The authors state the design was non-experimental, so they identified relationships without claiming direct causality.
  • The authors state self-selection bias may have skewed results positively, that findings may not generalize to the whole FL population, and that participants were very good FL students in selective schools.
  • Evident from the text: the sample is gender-imbalanced (49 females vs. 140 males) and drawn from only two selective/top-performing Greater London schools; the paper also contains an inconsistency in which relative standing is listed as an FLE correlate in the abstract/conclusion but reported as non-significant for FLE in the results and Table 1.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/1362168817692161

Cites

45 of 45 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

2 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

0 of 17 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data
    § INSERT FIGURE 4 · p. 9

    Attitude towards the foreign language had a significant effect on foreign language enjoyment (FLE), with a large effect size.

    “The attitude towards the FL was found to have a significant effect on FLE ( df (3, 185), F = 24.8, p < .0001, eta 2 = .287, Cohen's d = 1.27, which is a large effect size (see figure 5)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Abstract · p. 1

    Relative standing among peers in the foreign language classroom is significantly linked to foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA).

    “Lower levels FLCA were linked to higher scores on attitudes towards the FL, relative standing and stage of development.”
    • Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 9 · plain
      “Relative standing among peers in the FL classroom was also significantly linked to FLCA ( df (3, 185), F = 13.4, p < .0001, eta 2 = .076, Cohen's d = .57 - a small effect size”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Abstract · p. 1

    Foreign language enjoyment (FLE) is linked to higher scores on attitudes towards the foreign language.

    “Levels of FLE were linked to higher scores on attitudes towards the FL, the FL teacher, FL use in class, proportion of time spent on speaking, relative standing and stage of development.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The single-item measures of attitudes towards the foreign language, the foreign language teacher, frequency of foreign language use, time spent on speaking, and predictability are valid measures of those constructs.
  • Findingown data
    § INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 8

    Female participants scored higher than male participants on foreign language enjoyment (FLE) (Females Mean=4.2, SD=0.5; Males Mean=3.8, SD=0.6; t=3.7, p<.0001, Cohen's d=0.54, r2=0.07).

    “Two independent t-tests revealed that the 49 female participants scored higher than the 140 males on FLE: (Females Mean = 4.2, SD = 0.5; Males Mean = 3.8, SD = 0.6).”
    • Also stated in: § INSERT FIGURE 1 · p. 8 · plain
      “These differences were significant for FLE ( df = 187, t = 3.7, p < .0001, Cohen's d = 0.54, r 2 = 0.07)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § INSERT FIGURE 4 · p. 9

    Those with very favourable attitudes towards the foreign language had significantly higher FLE scores than the three other groups.

    “Those with very favourable attitudes had significantly higher FLE scores than the three other groups (all p < .0001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 21
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 17

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 11

    Students who had a more positive attitude towards the foreign language reported both significantly more FLE and less FLCA.

    “Unsurprisingly, students who had a more positive attitude towards the FL reported both significantly more FLE and less FLCA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § VI Discussion · p. 10

    FLE and FLCA had a small but significant negative relationship, with the dimensions sharing less than 4% of variance.

    “A small but significant negative relationship was found, with the dimensions sharing less than 4% of variance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 13

    Although all foreign language students in both schools were contacted through their parents, only a fraction filled out the online questionnaire.

    “Although all FL students in both schools were contacted through their parents, only a fraction filled out the online questionnaire.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 10

    The relationship between age and FLE in the present study was not linear; fourteen and fifteen year-olds seemed to enjoy their foreign language classes least of all.

    “The relationship in the present study was not linear however: the fourteen and fifteen year-olds seemed to enjoy their FL classes least of all.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 11

    More experienced foreign language learners reported both more FLE and less FLCA.

    “More experienced FL learners reported both more FLE and less FLCA, reflecting the finding in Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § VII Conclusion · p. 13

    Positive attitudes towards the foreign language, the foreign language teacher, a lot of foreign language use by the teacher in class, a strong proportion of time spent by students on speaking, a higher relative standing among peers in the foreign language class and a relatively advanced stage of development of the foreign language all contributed to higher levels of FLE.

    “Positive attitudes towards the FL, the FL teacher, a lot of FL use by the teacher in class, a strong proportion of time spent by students on speaking, a higher relative standing among peers in the FL class and a relative advanced stage of development of the FL all contributed to higher levels of FLE.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 11

    Female students reported both more FLE and more FLCA than their male peers.

    “The female students reported both more FLE and more FLCA than their male peers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § INSERT FIGURE 9 · p. 10

    Teacher predictability had a significant negative effect on FLE, with a small effect size.

    “but did have a significant negative effect on FLE ( df (3, 185), F = 3.9, p < .001, eta 2 = .06, Cohen's d = .50 - small effect size (Plonsky & Oswald, 2014) (see figure 10).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Plonsky & Oswald, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § VII Conclusion · p. 13

    British secondary school learners reported significantly higher levels of FLE than FLCA, with a weak negative relationship between both.

    “Our British secondary school learners reported significantly higher levels of FLE than FLCA, with a weak negative relationship between both.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § II Literature review · p. 3

    Positive emotion effects enhance learners' ability to notice things in the classroom environment and strengthen their awareness of language input, allowing them to absorb the foreign language.

    “MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012) pointed out that effects of positive emotion go beyond pleasant feelings: they enhance learners' ability to notice things in classroom environment and strengthen their awareness of language input. This, in turn, allows them to absorb the FL.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § I The relationship between FLE and FLCA · p. 8

    Higher levels of foreign language enjoyment (FLE) are linked to lower levels of foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA), but both dimensions share only 3.8% of variance, a small effect size.

    “In other words, higher levels of FLE seem to be linked to lower levels of FLCA but both dimensions share only 3.8% of variance, a small effect size (cf. Plonsky & Oswald, 2014: 889).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Plonsky & Oswald, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § II Literature review · p. 3

    Foreign language enjoyment (FLE) and foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) are partially inter-related but essentially separate dimensions.

    “A moderate negative correlation was found to exist between FLE and FLCA, suggesting that they are partially inter-related but essentially separate dimensions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S4 (based).

    Premisereasoning
    § II Literature review · p. 5

    What remains unexplored is to what extent the same learner-internal and learner-external variables affect both foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) and foreign language enjoyment (FLE) within a specific age-range and a single educational context.

    “What remains unexplored is to what extent the same learner-internal and learner-external variables affect both FLCA and FLE within a specific age-range and a single educational context.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data
    § Participants and Demographics · p. 6

    Self-reported relative standing among peers was positively correlated with self-reported results on the last major foreign language test (r(187)=.50, p<.0001).

    “These values were positively correlated with self-reported results on their last major FL test ( r (187) = .50, p < .0001).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § II Literature review · p. 4

    Foreign language classes are too often emotionally uninteresting or emotion-free, which leads to routine, boredom and lack of engagement.

    “Dewaele (2005, 2011, 2015) has argued that FL classes are too often emotionally uninteresting or emotion-free which leads to routine, boredom and lack of engagement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dewaele (2005, 2011, 2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § II Literature review · p. 3

    Positive emotions broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires and build their enduring personal resources.

    “positive emotions can 'broaden people's momentary thought-action repertoires and build their enduring personal resources, ranging from physical and intellectual resources to social and psychological resources' (Fredrickson, 2003, p. 219).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fredrickson, 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § I Introduction · p. 1

    Emotions have been largely shunned by Second Language Acquisition (SLA) scholars.

    “Dörnyei and Ryan (2015) pointed out that despite the fact that emotions play a crucial part in our lives, they have been largely 'shunned' by Second Language Acquisition (SLA) scholars (p. 9).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Dörnyei and Ryan (2015)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § II Literature review · p. 2

    Foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA) has a debilitating effect on second language learning and achievement.

    “FLCA was identified as having a debilitating effect on L2 learning and achievement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope, 1986

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 11

    Students were equally anxious with much-loved and less-loved teachers, suggesting that well-loved teachers can create anxiety but not necessarily more or less anxiety than other teachers.

    “In other words, students were equally anxious with much-loved and lessloved teachers, which suggest that well-loved teachers can create anxiety, but not necessarily more or less anxiety than other teachers - as indicated by a lack of significant differences.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 10

    For older, more advanced learners who sit A-level exams, increased motivation to study the foreign language overrides the negative backwash effect, making them more likely to enjoy foreign language classes.

    “The same phenomenon could be expected for older, more advanced learners who sit their Alevel exams. However, this effect appears to be overridden by students' increased motivation to study the FL, which they have deliberately chosen to pursue at that stage. This group of students is more likely to enjoy the FL classes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: When pupils in the UK move from eight or nine subjects at age 15 to three or four in their final two years of schooling, they are generally choosing subjects that they most enjoy and the skills acquired hitherto are employed in developing greater learner autonomy and an engagement in more challenging tasks relevant to their chosen path.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 11

    Students with a more positive attitude towards the foreign language may have developed a stronger motivation to master the foreign language and a more burning desire to invest time and effort to reach that goal.

    “These students may have developed a stronger motivation to master the FL and a more burning desire to invest the time and effort needed to reach that goal.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 12

    The sample is not a representative sample of the general foreign language student population.

    “as we do not claim that our sample is a representative sample of the general FL student population”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 12

    The study avoided claims about the extent to which FLE or FLCA could predict unsuccessful or successful foreign language learning.

    “We also avoided claims about the extent to which FLE or FLCA could predict un/successful FL learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 12

    The lack of a statistical effect for reading, writing and listening on FLE is related to the fact that there was no clear agreement on what the optimal proportion of time would be.

    “The lack of a statistical effect for these three skills is related to the fact that there was no clear agreement on what the 'optimal' proportion of time would be.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § VII Conclusion · p. 14

    Effective teachers fuel learners' enthusiasm and enjoyment and do not spend too much time worrying about their FLCA.

    “We conclude that effective teachers fuel learners' enthusiasm and enjoyment and do not spend too much time worrying about their FLCA.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 12

    The non-linear relationship between speaking time and FLE indicates that more is better up to a point, but that the optimal amount of time spent on speaking is relatively high.

    “The non-linear relationship indicates that more is better - up to a point, but that the optimal amount of time spent on speaking is relatively high.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data
    § VII Conclusion · p. 13

    FLE and FLCA are independent emotion dimensions with a very small amount of overlap.

    “FLE and FLCA are independent emotion dimensions with a very small amount of overlap.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 11

    The awareness of not being as good as peers is a source of social anxiety.

    “The awareness of not being as good as the peers is an obvious source of social anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 12

    The participants were more likely to enjoy the challenge of having to function in the foreign language with little L1 use.

    “They were therefore more likely to enjoy the challenge of having to function in the FL with little L1 use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 11

    Female learners were more emotionally involved in foreign language learning, experiencing more emotional highs and lows than their male peers.

    “The findings were interpreted as an indication that the female learners were more emotionally involved in the FL learning, experiencing more emotional highs and lows than their male peers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 13

    It is likely that those who did not feel strongly about their foreign language classes were less willing to spend 20 minutes filling out a detailed questionnaire about their foreign language classroom experiences.

    “It is likely that those who did not feel strongly about their FL classes were less willing to spend 20 minutes filling out a detailed questionnaire about their FL classroom experiences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § INSERT TABLE 1 · p. 12

    The study identified relationships between variables without claiming direct causality.

    “It is important to point out that we identified relationships between variables without claiming direct causality.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
32 of 32

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participants' self-reported level of mastery in the foreign language accurately reflects their actual proficiency.

    “Participants were also asked about the point they had reached in their FL journey. Very few described themselves as 'beginner' ( n = 2), more so as 'low intermediate' ( n = 21), 'intermediate', ( n = 58), 'high intermediate' ( n = 92), and 'advanced' ( n = 26).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The single-item measures of attitudes towards the foreign language, the foreign language teacher, frequency of foreign language use, time spent on speaking, and predictability are valid measures of those constructs.

    “The questionnaire started with a demographics section from which the above information was retrieved. Following this, participants were asked to respond to an item on their attitude towards their first modern FL (as some students learned two FLs simultaneously), on a 5-point Likert scale.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The participants provided objective reports of actual teacher behaviour of close to 38 teachers.

    “we assume that our participants provided us with objective reports of actual teacher behaviour of close to 38 teachers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    When pupils in the UK move from eight or nine subjects at age 15 to three or four in their final two years of schooling, they are generally choosing subjects that they most enjoy and the skills acquired hitherto are employed in developing greater learner autonomy and an engagement in more challenging tasks relevant to their chosen path.

    “When pupils in the UK move from eight or nine subjects at age 15 to three or four in their final two years of schooling, they are generally choosing subjects that they most enjoy and the skills acquired hitherto are employed in developing greater learner autonomy and an engagement in more challenging tasks relevant to their chosen path.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Other independent variables undoubtedly affect the overall picture, such as significantly reduced class sizes, more informal pupil-teacher relationships and greater maturity.

    “Other independent variables undoubtedly affect the overall picture, such as significantly reduced class sizes, more informal pupil-teacher relationships and greater maturity.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Some teachers do, consciously or unconsciously, cause anxiety.

    “Even if the teachers in the present study did not seem to cause heightened anxiety, some teachers do, consciously or unconsciously cause anxiety.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Dewaele et al. (2018) found that pupils liked teachers who used the foreign language frequently, were unpredictable, and allowed students to speak.

    “More specifically, pupils liked teachers who used the FL frequently in class, who were unpredictable, and who gave students the opportunity to speak up.”

    From Sources and effects of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom: A structural equation modeling approach (2023) · cites this paper as Dewaele et al. (2018)

    The results (pp. 9–10) link more frequent teacher use of the foreign language, lower teacher predictability, and more student speaking time with higher foreign-language enjoyment. But they do not establish that pupils *liked the teachers* with those characteristics: liking the teacher and enjoyment of the class were measured separately. The speaking-time relationship also reversed beyond about 50–60% of class time. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Through building on positive emotions, language teachers can concurrently decrease foreign language anxiety and increase foreign language enjoyment in their learners.

    “Through building on positive emotions, language teachers can concurrently decrease foreign language anxiety and increase foreign language enjoyment in their learners (Dewaele et al., 2018; Dewaele and Dewaele, 2020).”

    From Researching and Practicing Positive Psychology in Second/Foreign Language Learning and Teaching: The Past, Current Status and Future Directions (2021) · cites this paper as Dewaele et al., 2018

    The Abstract (p. 1) and Conclusion (p. 14) recommend that teachers foster foreign language enjoyment and create friendly, low-anxiety environments. They do not establish that building positive emotions concurrently decreases anxiety: the Abstract says anxiety was less related to teachers and their practices than enjoyment, and the discussion (p. 11) found attitudes toward teachers unrelated to anxiety. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • ESL/EFL students' anxiety is related to their overall proficiency and attitude toward the language learned.

    “A large body of literature suggests that ESL/EFL students' anxiety is related to their overall proficiency and attitude toward the language learned (see Dewaele et al., 2018; Shao et al., 2013).”

    From Investigating How 'The Writing Revolution' and Task Complexity Can Enhance Secondary TESOL Students’ Expository Writing (2024) · cites this paper as Dewaele et al., 2018

    The Abstract (p. 1) and Conclusion (p. 13) link lower foreign-language classroom anxiety to more positive attitudes toward the language, higher standing among peers, and a more advanced stage of learning. The study concerns British students learning various foreign languages, predominantly French, rather than ESL/EFL students specifically; it also uses relative standing and stage of development rather than a direct measure of overall proficiency. (LLM, conf=0.86)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Dewaele et al. (2018) found that pupils with the highest foreign language enjoyment reported more positive attitudes toward the foreign language and its teacher.

    “The authors found that the pupils from two secondary schools in London with the highest level of FLE reported more positive attitudes toward the FL and the FL teacher.”

    From Sources and effects of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom: A structural equation modeling approach (2023) · cites this paper as Dewaele et al. (2018)

  • Studies have overwhelmingly found large positive correlations between FLE and WTC.

    “These studies have overwhelmingly found large positive correlations between FLE and WTC (Dewaele & Dewaele, 2018;Khajavy et al., 2018), leading Dewaele (2019) to conclude that teachers may boost WTC in the FL classroom by creating a positive environment in which FLE may flourish.”

    From Taking stock: A meta-analysis of the effects of foreign language enjoyment (2022) · cites this paper as Dewaele & Dewaele, 2018

    The relationship analysis (p. 8) reports a small negative correlation between FLE and classroom anxiety, not a correlation between FLE and willingness to communicate (WTC). The speaking-time analysis (p. 10) links FLE to time spent speaking, but does not measure WTC or establish a large positive correlation with it. Searches for “WTC” and “willingness to communicate” found no passage addressing the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • p-value fits an unstated one-tailed test: r (188) = -.194, p < .007

    Minor

    The paper reports p < .007 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .007 (two-tailed). The reported value is what a one-tailed test gives, but the paper does not say near this result that a one-tailed test was used.

    Reported p < .007 · recomputed p = .007

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upr(188) = -0.194reported p < .007 · recomputed p = .007

    “r (188) = -.194, p < .007”

  • Consistentr(187) = 0.5reported p < .0001 · recomputed p < .001

    “r (187) = .50, p < .0001”

2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Conclusion attributes higher FLE to relative standing despite a null result

    Major

    The results explicitly say relative standing was not significantly linked to FLE, but the conclusion lists higher relative standing among contributors to higher FLE.

  • Reported FL proficiency groups total 199, not 189

    Minor

    The five proficiency-group counts add to 199, ten more than the stated number of participants.

    Reported 189 · recomputed 199

  • French learner percentage uses the wrong denominator

    Minor

    The study has 189 participants, so 144 studying French is 76.2%, not 68%.

    Reported 68 · recomputed 76.190476

  • Age ANOVA has an impossible residual degrees of freedom

    Minor

    With 189 participants in the seven reported age groups, a one-way ANOVA has 189 − 7 = 182 residual degrees of freedom, not 189.

    Reported 189 · recomputed 182

  • Teacher-attitude response counts conflict with the ANOVA sample size

    Minor

    The five teacher-attitude groups contain 181 students, whereas the reported one-way ANOVA degrees of freedom (4, 184) require 189 observations.

  • Predictability response counts conflict with the ANOVA sample size

    Minor

    The five predictability groups contain 182 students, whereas the reported ANOVA degrees of freedom (3, 185) require 189 observations.

6 of 6

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 46 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. Arnold J., 2007, Language acquisition and development, 107
  2. Avila-López J., 2015, MARCO ELE: Revista de Didáctica Español Lengua Extranjera, 21, 1
  3. Baider F., 2015, Le langage et l’homme, 50, 3
  4. Berdal-Masuy F., 2015, Le langage et l’homme, 50, 3
  5. Dewaele J.-M., 2010, Language practices and identity construction in French, 133
  6. Dewaele J.-M., 2011, Anglistik: International Journal of English Studies, 22, 23
  7. Dewaele J.-M., 2016, Theory and Practice of Second Language Acquisition, 2, 41
  8. Dulay H., 1977, Viewpoints on English as a second language, 95
  9. Mettewie L., 2015, Le Langage et l’Homme, L2, 23
  10. Murphy T., 2009, New challenges in language and literature, 129
  11. Nation P., 2003, Asian EFL Journal, 5, 1
  12. Schumann J., 1978, Second-language acquisition and foreign language teaching, 27

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Dewaele, J.-M., Witney, J., Saito, K., & Dewaele, L.
Affiliations
  • University of London (GB)
  • Westminster School, London, UK
  • University of Oxford (GB)
Corresponding author
Dewaele, Jean-Marc
ORCID
Venue
Language Teaching Research
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2017-02-17
Volume
22
Issue
6
Pages
676-697
ISSN
  • 1362-1688 (ISSN-L)
  • 1477-0954
DOI
10.1177/1362168817692161
OpenAlex
W2588952674
Semantic Scholar
f30fe7299637b69f637cfb9382334c970cbc85af
Cited by
780
References
46
Citations by year
2026: 74 · 2025: 134 · 2024: 121 · 2023: 120 · 2022: 122 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 6
FWCI
154.41
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations
  • Language Teaching Research (publishedVersion)
  • BIROn (Birkbeck, University of London) (acceptedVersion)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Communication in Education and Healthcare
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Literature and Literary Theory › Second Language Learning and Teaching
Keywords
foreign language enjoyment, foreign language classroom anxiety, student attitudes, teacher attitudes, relative standing, developmental stages, speaking time, teacher practices, high school students, positive psychology

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review