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Experience-dependent structural plasticity in the cortex
Open accessAbstract
Synapses are the fundamental units of neuronal circuits. Synaptic plasticity can occur through changes in synaptic strength, as well as through the addition/removal of synapses. Two-photon microscopy in combination with fluorescence labeling offers a powerful tool to peek into the living brain and follow structural reorganization at individual synapses. Time-lapse imaging depicts a dynamic picture in which experience-dependent plasticity of synaptic structures varies between different cortical regions and layers, as well as between neuronal subtypes. Recent studies have demonstrated that the formation and elimination of synaptic structures happens rapidly in a subpopulation of cortical neurons during various sensorimotor learning experiences, and that stabilized synaptic structures are associated with long lasting memories for the task. Therefore, circuit plasticity, mediated by structural remodeling, provides an underlying mechanism for learning and memory.
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TL;DR
This review synthesizes in vivo two-photon imaging evidence that cortical synaptic structures are remodeled by experience, with rapid spine formation and elimination in subsets of neurons and stabilization linked to lasting memory. It argues that structural circuit rewiring complements synaptic strength changes in learning, while noting unresolved questions about deep layers, cell-type specificity, and causality.
Key findings
- Dendritic spines are highly dynamic early and then stabilize: filopodia fall from over 50% at 2 weeks to under 10% at 1 month and 2–3% in adult barrel cortex; roughly 30% of spines are pruned between 1 and 4 months; more than 70% of adult spines remain stable over 18 months.
- Experience changes spine dynamics: monocular deprivation increases spine formation and density selectively on L5 apical dendrites, and many new spines persist after binocular vision is restored; later deprivation enlarges these spines rather than adding more. Motor training induces new spines within one hour, learning acquisition correlates with spine formation, and skill maintenance correlates with survival of new spines, which can persist up to 4 months.
- Plasticity differs by cell type and region: L5 pyramidal neurons with complex apical tufts preferentially gain new spines; inhibitory interneuron dendrites are dynamic in superficial L2/3, with visual deprivation increasing dynamic branches about 3-fold and producing roughly 10% interneuron synapse turnover per week. Axonal boutons also differ, with thalamocortical boutons about 85% stable over a month versus about 60% turnover in L6 cortical axons, and about 7% weekly bouton turnover in adult monkey visual cortex.
- Structural changes likely correspond to functional synapses: EM and electrophysiology evidence indicates that persistent new spines and many boutons have synaptic contacts, although direct causal proof is still lacking.
Methods
- Narrative review of in vivo structural imaging studies, primarily using two-photon laser scanning microscopy with fluorescent labeling such as thy1 transgenic mice and viral EGFP.
- Covers excitatory pyramidal neurons, inhibitory interneurons, and axons across development and adulthood, including sensory manipulation, motor learning, songbird learning, stroke, neurodegeneration, and Fragile X Syndrome.
- Synthesizes findings on spine, filopodium, and bouton turnover, morphology, stability, and links to functional synaptic connectivity; no primary data or meta-analysis are presented.
Limitations
- Stated: current two-photon imaging is mostly limited to superficial cortical layers, mainly L1 and L2, leaving deeper-layer plasticity unclear; thy1 lines label sparse and often mixed cell populations, limiting cell-type-specific imaging; most learning studies show correlation rather than causation between structural dynamics and behavior.
- Stated: the field debates whether dendritic protrusions should be classified as spines versus filopodia and what baseline spine dynamics actually are; discrepancies may come from mouse lines, animal age, cranial window versus thin skull preparation, analysis methods, and imaging intervals.
- Evident: as a review, it lacks a systematic search or quantitative synthesis, and many conclusions rest on heterogeneous protocols and indirect structural proxies for synaptic connectivity.
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Claims the paper makes
107 Not checked yet · 11 Own interpretation · 2 No basis given · 1 Supported
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Experience modifies these connections by selectively stabilizing some synapses and removing others [8, 12, 13].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Holtmaat A Svoboda K 2009 Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain Nat Rev Neurosci 10 647 658 19693029 source
- Not checked yetcites [12] Lichtman JW Colman H 2000 Synapse elimination and indelible memory Neuron 25 269 278 10719884 source
- Not checked yetcites [13] Draft RW Lichtman JW 2009 It’s lonely at the top: winning climbing fibers ascend dendrites solo Neuron 63 6 8 19607787 PMC2790139 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Recent in vivo studies show that mutant mice lacking the cell adhesion molecule, δ-catenin, undergo progressive retraction of dendrites and spine loss after 5 weeks of age [21].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [21] Matter C 2009 Delta-catenin is required for the maintenance of neural structure and function in mature cortex in vivo Neuron 64 320 327 19914181 PMC2840037 source
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In the paper
“Given the fact that filopodia are rare in adults, conclusions of adult spine dynamics are largely not affected by including or excluding filopodia from the analyses.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Zuo Y 2005 Development of long-term dendritic spine stability in diverse regions of cerebral cortex Neuron 46 181 189 15848798 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In vivo imaging of cortical pyramidal neurons has shown that, except for small tip extensions and retractions, dendritic branches are mostly stable in adulthood [19, 20].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] Trachtenberg JT 2002 Long-term in vivo imaging of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in adult cortex Nature 420 788 794 12490942 source
- Not checked yetcites [20] Mizrahi A Katz LC 2003 Dendritic stability in the adult olfactory bulb Nat Neurosci 6 1201 1207 14528309 source
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In the paper
“Both studies reveal a significant increase in spine turnover in the barrel cortex of Fmr1 KO mice.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [75] Cruz-Martin A 2010 Delayed stabilization of dendritic spines in fragile X mice J Neurosci 30 7793 7803 20534828 PMC2903441 source
- Not checked yetcites [76] Pan F 2010 Dendritic spine instability and insensitivity to modulation by sensory experience in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107 17768 17773 20861447 PMC2955121 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“At one month of age, a small percentage (~15%) of filopodia has been observed to form bulbous heads within 4 hours in vivo.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Zuo Y 2005 Development of long-term dendritic spine stability in diverse regions of cerebral cortex Neuron 46 181 189 15848798 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In early postnatal development (i.e., around 2 weeks of age), both dendritic spines and filopodia are very dynamic, appearing, disappearing or changing shape over tens of minutes [17].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] Lendvai B 2000 Experience-dependent plasticity of dendritic spines in the developing rat barrel cortex in vivo Nature 404 876 881 10786794 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“They also show a delayed maturation of spines [75]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [75] Cruz-Martin A 2010 Delayed stabilization of dendritic spines in fragile X mice J Neurosci 30 7793 7803 20534828 PMC2903441 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“For example, dramatic spine loss and neurite dystrophy have been observed in the vicinity of β-amyloid plaques in the cortex of mouse models of Alzheimer’s disease [72, 73].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [72] Tsai J 2004 Fibrillar amyloid deposition leads to local synaptic abnormalities and breakage of neuronal branches Nat Neurosci 7 1181 1183 15475950 source
- Not checked yetcites [73] Spires TL 2005 Dendritic spine abnormalities in amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice demonstrated by gene transfer and intravital multiphoton microscopy J Neurosci 25 7278 7287 16079410 PMC1820616 source
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In the paper
“and a decreased sensitivity of spine plasticity to sensory manipulation [76]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [76] Pan F 2010 Dendritic spine instability and insensitivity to modulation by sensory experience in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 107 17768 17773 20861447 PMC2955121 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In vivo imaging shows that the proportion of dendritic filopodia gradually decreases as animals mature, from over 50% at 2 weeks of age to <10% at one month of age, and to 2–3% in adulthood in the mouse barrel cortex [36].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Zuo Y 2005 Development of long-term dendritic spine stability in diverse regions of cerebral cortex Neuron 46 181 189 15848798 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such structural changes likely contribute to altered neuronal circuits and functions.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Although filopodia are rare in adults, they account for ~10% of the total protrusions in adolescent mice at 1 month of age [36].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Zuo Y 2005 Development of long-term dendritic spine stability in diverse regions of cerebral cortex Neuron 46 181 189 15848798 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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In the paper
“Mice raised in darkness since birth exhibit high spine motility and immature spine morphology in the visual cortex, compared with age-matched controls [32].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] Tropea D 2010 Structural dynamics of synapses in vivo correlate with functional changes during experience-dependent plasticity in visual cortex J Neurosci 30 11086 11095 20720116 PMC2932955 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Indeed, it has been shown that the YFP-H line labels a subpopulation of L5 pyramidal neurons with distinct local circuits [78].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [78] Yu J 2008 Local-Circuit Phenotypes of Layer 5 Neurons in Motor-Frontal Cortex of YFP-H Mice Front Neural Circuits 2 6 19129938 PMC2614859 source
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In the paper
“Manipulating visual input in the adult mouse, via a focused retinal lesion, leads to an almost complete spine turnover in the deafferented region of the visual cortex within 2 months from the time of lesion [46].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [46] Keck T 2008 Massive restructuring of neuronal circuits during functional reorganization of adult visual cortex Nat Neurosci 11 1162 1167 18758460 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In adolescent mice (1–3 months), while sensory deprivation induced by plucking all whiskers on one side reduces spine elimination and delays spine pruning in the contralateral barrel cortex [27]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Zuo Y 2005 Long-term sensory deprivation prevents dendritic spine loss in primary somatosensory cortex Nature 436 261 265 16015331 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“By training mice with a forelimb reaching task, it has been demonstrated that new spines form rapidly (within one hour of the first training trial) in apical dendrites of L5 pyramidal neurons in the forelimb motor cortex contralateral to the trained arm [37]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“sensory stimulation induced by either an enriched environment or unilateral chessboard plucking (plucking every other whisker, to produce an imbalance in the activation of neighboring whisker columns) increases spine turnover in this same brain region [19, 29, 38].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] Trachtenberg JT 2002 Long-term in vivo imaging of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in adult cortex Nature 420 788 794 12490942 source
- Not checked yetcites [29] Holtmaat A 2006 Experience-dependent and cell-type-specific spine growth in the neocortex Nature 441 979 983 16791195 source
- Not checked yetcites [38] Yang G 2009 Stably maintained dendritic spines are associated with lifelong memories Nature 462 920 924 19946265 PMC4724802 source
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In the paper
“Furthermore, novel sensory experience promotes new spine stabilization selectively in a subclass of cortical neurons: new spines are preferentially added onto L5 pyramidal neurons with complex apical tufts rather than those with simple tufts [29].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Holtmaat A 2006 Experience-dependent and cell-type-specific spine growth in the neocortex Nature 441 979 983 16791195 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Similar increases in spine turnover have been observed in mice performing other motor tasks, including the rotarod [38] and pasta handling [37] tasks.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] Yang G 2009 Stably maintained dendritic spines are associated with lifelong memories Nature 462 920 924 19946265 PMC4724802 source
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“A recent fixed tissue study further shows that learning-related structural modifications (e.g., increases in spine density and dendritic complexity) are restricted to the corticospinal neurons associated with control of distal forelimb that is required for skilled grasping in rats [47].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Wang L 2010 Structural plasticity within highly specific neuronal populations identifies a unique parcellation of motor learning in the adult brain Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 10.1073/pnas.1014335108 PMC3038698 21257908 source
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In the paper
“Interestingly, the degree of spine formation is closely associated with the degree of learning acquisition [37]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Supporting this, it has been shown that a subpopulation of lateral amygdala neurons with elevated cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element–binding protein (CREB) levels are preferentially activated during fear conditioning [53].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [53] Han JH 2007 Neuronal competition and selection during memory formation Science 316 457 460 17446403 source
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In the paper
“Compared with synaptic strength changes alone, new synapse formation could greatly increase the memory storage capacity of the brain [49–51].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] Chklovskii DB 2004 Cortical rewiring and information storage Nature 431 782 788 15483599 source
- Not checked yetcites [50] Stepanyants A 2002 Geometry and structural plasticity of synaptic connectivity Neuron 34 275 288 11970869 source
- Not checked yetcites [51] Stepanyants A Chklovskii DB 2005 Neurogeometry and potential synaptic connectivity Trends Neurosci 28 387 394 15935485 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“while survival of new spines correlates with the maintenance of the motor skill [37]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, the above studies show that, despite the absence of large-scale remodeling of dendrites, rearrangement of cortical connections in the form of de novo growth and loss of dendritic spines provides a structural substrate for experience-dependent plasticity.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
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In the paper
“It has been estimated that there is ~10% turnover of interneuron synapses per week during visual deprivation [10].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of inhibitory interneurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Chen JL Nedivi E 2010 Neuronal structural remodeling: is it all about access? Curr Opin Neurobiol 20 557 562 20621466 PMC2946477 source
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In the paper
“Furthermore, sensory manipulations, in the form of monocular and binocular deprivation, have been shown to increase the fraction of dynamic branches in cortical interneurons by around 3-fold in adult mice [10].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of inhibitory interneurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Chen JL Nedivi E 2010 Neuronal structural remodeling: is it all about access? Curr Opin Neurobiol 20 557 562 20621466 PMC2946477 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Interestingly, remodeled interneurons were determined to be spatially restricted to a specialized dynamic zone in the cortex, corresponding to a superficial strip of L2/3 [58].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of inhibitory interneurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [58] Lee WC 2008 A dynamic zone defines interneuron remodeling in the adult neocortex Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 105 19968 19973 19066223 PMC2604980 source
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In the paper
“During postnatal development (i.e., the first 3 weeks in mice), it has been found that axonal growth is cell-type specific.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] Portera-Cailliau C 2005 Diverse modes of axon elaboration in the developing neocortex PLoS Biol 3 e272 16026180 PMC1180514 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In adult mice, axonal branches are mostly stable [59].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] De Paola V 2006 Cell type-specific structural plasticity of axonal branches and boutons in the adult neocortex Neuron 49 861 875 16543134 source
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In the paper
“In addition, different subsets of synapses on motor cortex pyramidal neurons are selectively reorganized for different forelimb motor learning tasks [37].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This study found that there was ~7% turnover of axonal boutons per week, with no net change in overall density, demonstrating that axonal branches are largely stable in the adult monkey cortex [61].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [61] Stettler DD 2006 Axons and synaptic boutons are highly dynamic in adult visual cortex Neuron 49 877 887 16543135 source
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In the paper
“In monkeys, focal binocular lesions trigger a robust growth of axons towards the center of the lesion projection zone initially, followed by a delayed retraction that returns axonal density to the pre-lesion level [62].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [62] Yamahachi H 2009 Rapid axonal sprouting and pruning accompany functional reorganization in primary visual cortex Neuron 64 719 729 20005827 PMC2818836 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“This study found that there was ~7% turnover of axonal boutons per week, with no net change in overall density, demonstrating that axonal branches are largely stable in the adult monkey cortex [61].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [61] Stettler DD 2006 Axons and synaptic boutons are highly dynamic in adult visual cortex Neuron 49 877 887 16543135 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This study found that there was ~7% turnover of axonal boutons per week, with no net change in overall density, demonstrating that axonal branches are largely stable in the adult monkey cortex [61].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [61] Stettler DD 2006 Axons and synaptic boutons are highly dynamic in adult visual cortex Neuron 49 877 887 16543135 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“While excitatory neurons show a net increase of axonal projections from non-deprived whisker barrels to deprived barrels, inhibitory neurons in deprived whisker barrels extend their axons towards non-deprived whisker barrels.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [63] Marik SA 2010 Axonal dynamics of excitatory and inhibitory neurons in somatosensory cortex PLoS Biol 8 e1000395 20563307 PMC2885981 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“However, boutons on different types of axons display different morphologies and dynamics [59]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] De Paola V 2006 Cell type-specific structural plasticity of axonal branches and boutons in the adult neocortex Neuron 49 861 875 16543134 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Similarly, plucking 2 rows of whiskers leads to a rapid and massive remodeling of axons from both excitatory and inhibitory neurons in the mouse barrel cortex [63].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [63] Marik SA 2010 Axonal dynamics of excitatory and inhibitory neurons in somatosensory cortex PLoS Biol 8 e1000395 20563307 PMC2885981 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Such reciprocal sprouting of axons of excitatory and inhibitory neurons suggests that the excitation/inhibition balance in deprived and non-deprived barrel columns contribute to the sensory deprivation-induced topographic remapping [63].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [63] Marik SA 2010 Axonal dynamics of excitatory and inhibitory neurons in somatosensory cortex PLoS Biol 8 e1000395 20563307 PMC2885981 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Such changes are accompanied by an increase of axonal bouton turnover, resulting in rewiring of neuronal circuits [62].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [62] Yamahachi H 2009 Rapid axonal sprouting and pruning accompany functional reorganization in primary visual cortex Neuron 64 719 729 20005827 PMC2818836 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Many lines of evidence have shown that lesions and sensory manipulations alter dynamics of axonal arborization, even in adult animals.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [62] Yamahachi H 2009 Rapid axonal sprouting and pruning accompany functional reorganization in primary visual cortex Neuron 64 719 729 20005827 PMC2818836 source
- Not checked yetcites [63] Marik SA 2010 Axonal dynamics of excitatory and inhibitory neurons in somatosensory cortex PLoS Biol 8 e1000395 20563307 PMC2885981 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“While excitatory neurons show a net increase of axonal projections from non-deprived whisker barrels to deprived barrels, inhibitory neurons in deprived whisker barrels extend their axons towards non-deprived whisker barrels.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [63] Marik SA 2010 Axonal dynamics of excitatory and inhibitory neurons in somatosensory cortex PLoS Biol 8 e1000395 20563307 PMC2885981 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“When dendrites and axons imaged under similar experimental conditions are compared, dynamics of dendritic spines are somewhat higher than those of axonal boutons [59].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] De Paola V 2006 Cell type-specific structural plasticity of axonal branches and boutons in the adult neocortex Neuron 49 861 875 16543134 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Intracortical axons from L2/3 and L5 neurons contain mostly en passant boutons, which show an intermediate level of dynamics [59].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] De Paola V 2006 Cell type-specific structural plasticity of axonal branches and boutons in the adult neocortex Neuron 49 861 875 16543134 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Such changes are accompanied by an increase of axonal bouton turnover, resulting in rewiring of neuronal circuits [62].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [62] Yamahachi H 2009 Rapid axonal sprouting and pruning accompany functional reorganization in primary visual cortex Neuron 64 719 729 20005827 PMC2818836 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Moreover, retrospective 3D EM reconstruction following in vivo time-lapse imaging has demonstrated that although a proportion of newly formed (i.e., less than 4 days old) spines lack synapses, both pre-existing and persistent new spines exhibit ultrastructural hallmarks of typical synapses [19, 35].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] Trachtenberg JT 2002 Long-term in vivo imaging of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in adult cortex Nature 420 788 794 12490942 source
- Not checked yetcites [35] Knott GW 2006 Spine growth precedes synapse formation in the adult neocortex in vivo Nat Neurosci 9 1117 1124 16892056 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Experience modifies neuronal circuits in a regional, laminar and cell type-specific manner.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For axons and inhibitory neurons, it is also thought that structural changes likely represent changes in synaptic connectivity.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In organotypic hippocampal cultures, spines older than 15–19 hours consistently show ultrastructural hallmarks of typical synapses [33].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [33] Nagerl UV 2007 Protracted synaptogenesis after activity-dependent spinogenesis in hippocampal neurons J Neurosci 27 8149 8156 17652605 PMC6672732 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“With the estimated synaptic density of one synapse per micron of dendrite, a significant synaptic reorganization could accompany the substantial dendritic rearrangement of interneurons [10].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Chen JL Nedivi E 2010 Neuronal structural remodeling: is it all about access? Curr Opin Neurobiol 20 557 562 20621466 PMC2946477 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Furthermore, a recent electrophysiology study using rat hippocampal slice culture demonstrates that a few hours after spine growth, both AMPA-and NMDA-type glutamate receptor currents are indistinguishable from those of mature spines of comparable volumes, further suggesting active functional properties of new spines [65].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] Zito K 2009 Rapid functional maturation of nascent dendritic spines Neuron 61 247 258 19186167 PMC2800307 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition, remodeling of dendritic spines has been shown to be closely associated with functional re-organization in the cortex following retina injury or in the post-stroke brain [46, 88].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [46] Keck T 2008 Massive restructuring of neuronal circuits during functional reorganization of adult visual cortex Nat Neurosci 11 1162 1167 18758460 source
- Not checked yetcites [88] Brown CE 2009 In vivo voltage-sensitive dye imaging in adult mice reveals that somatosensory maps lost to stroke are replaced over weeks by new structural and functional circuits with prolonged modes of activation within both the peri-infarct zone and distant sites J Neurosci 29 1719 1734 19211879 PMC6666293 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This idea is further supported in a recent study combining time-lapse in vivo imaging with restrospective EM reconstruction, showing that en passant boutons, terminaux boutons, and boutons at tips of axons in the adult mouse cortex, all have visible synaptic contacts [59].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] De Paola V 2006 Cell type-specific structural plasticity of axonal branches and boutons in the adult neocortex Neuron 49 861 875 16543134 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“For example, intracortical microstimulation following in vivo imaging indicates that reaching task-induced synaptic reorganization is restricted in the contralateral forelimb motor cortex [37].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Furthermore, a recent electrophysiology study using rat hippocampal slice culture demonstrates that a few hours after spine growth, both AMPA-and NMDA-type glutamate receptor currents are indistinguishable from those of mature spines of comparable volumes, further suggesting active functional properties of new spines [65].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] Zito K 2009 Rapid functional maturation of nascent dendritic spines Neuron 61 247 258 19186167 PMC2800307 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“For axons, earlier EM studies have shown that when boutons are identified under light microscopy and subsequently examined with EM, almost all boutons have synapses (see e.g., [66]).”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] Anderson JC Martin KA 2001 Does bouton morphology optimize axon length? Nat Neurosci 4 1166 1167 11713473 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, it is now generally concluded that synaptic structures remodel rapidly in developing animals.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the case of dendritic spines, evidence from classic electron microscopy (EM) studies has demonstrated that spine volume correlates with the size of the postsynaptic density and the number of presynaptic vesicles (see reviews [23, 64]), suggesting that larger spines have stronger synapses.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [23] Bourne JN Harris KM 2008 Balancing structure and function at hippocampal dendritic spines Annu Rev Neurosci 31 47 67 18284372 PMC2561948 source
- Not checked yetcites [64] Arellano JI 2007 Ultrastructure of dendritic spines: correlation between synaptic and spine morphologies Front Neurosci 1 131 143 18982124 PMC2518053 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Cumulatively, the above studies support the idea that synaptic structural changes observed by in vivo imaging serve as a good indicator for reorganization of the functional synaptic connections, although further studies are required to directly demonstrate causality.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] De Paola V 2006 Cell type-specific structural plasticity of axonal branches and boutons in the adult neocortex Neuron 49 861 875 16543134 source
- Not checked yetcites [66] Anderson JC Martin KA 2001 Does bouton morphology optimize axon length? Nat Neurosci 4 1166 1167 11713473 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Moreover, retrospective 3D EM reconstruction following in vivo time-lapse imaging has demonstrated that although a proportion of newly formed (i.e., less than 4 days old) spines lack synapses, both pre-existing and persistent new spines exhibit ultrastructural hallmarks of typical synapses [19, 35].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [19] Trachtenberg JT 2002 Long-term in vivo imaging of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in adult cortex Nature 420 788 794 12490942 source
- Not checked yetcites [35] Knott GW 2006 Spine growth precedes synapse formation in the adult neocortex in vivo Nat Neurosci 9 1117 1124 16892056 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Spinogenesis has been observed when pre-trained mice are challenged with learning a new skill with the same forelimb, suggesting that different motor skills are encoded by different sets of synapses in the motor cortex [37].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Spinogenesis has been observed when pre-trained mice are challenged with learning a new skill with the same forelimb, suggesting that different motor skills are encoded by different sets of synapses in the motor cortex [37].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given the different connectivity between the different cortical layers, it may not be appropriate to simply extend the present understanding obtained from superficial layers to deeper layers of the cortex.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: In vivo structural imaging is currently limited to superficial cortical layers (mostly L1 and L2) due to limitations of current two-photon laser scanning systems.
- Rests on an assumption: Different cortical layers have different connectivity.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“More importantly, not only is experience-dependent structural reorganization cell-type selective, such reorganization is possibly limited to specific synapses.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“So far, the majority of in vivo imaging has been performed using thy1 transgenic lines, which express fluorescent proteins sparsely in a subset of cortical neurons, often with mixed cell populations, including both pyramidal neurons and interneurons [18].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [18] Feng G 2000 Imaging neuronal subsets in transgenic mice expressing multiple spectral variants of GFP Neuron 28 41 51 11086982 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many lines of evidence suggest that experience-dependent structural plasticity happens in selective cell types of well-defined circuits.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Despite the exciting recent findings of structural remodeling associated with learning [37, 38, 48] (see also Figure 2a–c), all studies so far have been limited to showing a correlation, rather than a causal relationship.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
- Not checked yetcites [38] Yang G 2009 Stably maintained dendritic spines are associated with lifelong memories Nature 462 920 924 19946265 PMC4724802 source
- Not checked yetcites [48] Roberts TF 2010 Rapid spine stabilization and synaptic enhancement at the onset of behavioural learning Nature 463 948 952 20164928 PMC2918377 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 46
- Probably not a substantial claim. 7
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“The effect of light exposure can be partially mimicked by increasing inhibitory signaling, suggesting that a balance between excitatory and inhibitory circuits plays an important role in spine maturation during development [32].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [32] Tropea D 2010 Structural dynamics of synapses in vivo correlate with functional changes during experience-dependent plasticity in visual cortex J Neurosci 30 11086 11095 20720116 PMC2932955 source
The Results report that enhancing inhibition with diazepam restored visual responsiveness in dark-reared animals without light exposure. The Discussion clarifies that inhibition did not restore mature spine morphology and suggests that light acts through interacting excitatory and inhibitory signaling. This supports the claim’s qualified wording: the light effect was only partially mimicked, and a role for balance in spine maturation is suggested rather than established. (LLM, conf=0.91)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The cumulative results from these in vivo studies reveal that development, experience, and various pathologies all affect spine and filopodium dynamics in significant ways”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Cumulative data have shown that experience-dependent plasticity occurs in adulthood and it is now well accepted that neuronal circuits of the mammalian brain are capable of changing in response to new experience throughout life [7–11].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [7] Zito K Svoboda K 2002 Activity-dependent synaptogenesis in the adult Mammalian cortex Neuron 35 1015 1017 12354392 source
- Not checked yetcites [8] Holtmaat A Svoboda K 2009 Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain Nat Rev Neurosci 10 647 658 19693029 source
- Not checked yetcites [9] Bavelier D 2010 Removing brakes on adult brain plasticity: from molecular to behavioral interventions J Neurosci 30 14964 14971 21068299 PMC2992973 source
- Not checked yetcites [10] Chen JL Nedivi E 2010 Neuronal structural remodeling: is it all about access? Curr Opin Neurobiol 20 557 562 20621466 PMC2946477 source
- Not checked yetcites [11] Yu X Zuo Y 2010 Spine plasticity in the motor cortex Curr Opin Neurobiol 10.1016/j.conb.2010.07.010 PMC2991530 20728341
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is generally believed that a functional, mature neuronal circuit is formed from an initial pool of less precise synaptic connections.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Holtmaat A Svoboda K 2009 Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain Nat Rev Neurosci 10 647 658 19693029 source
- Not checked yetcites [12] Lichtman JW Colman H 2000 Synapse elimination and indelible memory Neuron 25 269 278 10719884 source
- Not checked yetcites [13] Draft RW Lichtman JW 2009 It’s lonely at the top: winning climbing fibers ascend dendrites solo Neuron 63 6 8 19607787 PMC2790139 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the adult brain, synaptic plasticity continues through modifications of synaptic strength, as well as through formation and elimination of synapses [8, 10].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [8] Holtmaat A Svoboda K 2009 Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain Nat Rev Neurosci 10 647 658 19693029 source
- Not checked yetcites [10] Chen JL Nedivi E 2010 Neuronal structural remodeling: is it all about access? Curr Opin Neurobiol 20 557 562 20621466 PMC2946477 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast, absence of the tumor suppressor protein, phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), results in continuous growth of L2/3 pyramidal neuron apical dendrites and expansion of the mature cortex [22].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [22] Chow DK 2009 Laminar and compartmental regulation of dendritic growth in mature cortex Nat Neurosci 12 116 118 19151711 PMC2842592 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Ischemic stroke causes a rapid (within minutes) loss of spines and distortion of dendrites, which can be mostly recovered if reperfusion happens within one hour [67–69].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [67] Zhang S 2005 Rapid reversible changes in dendritic spine structure in vivo gated by the degree of ischemia J Neurosci 25 5333 5338 15930381 PMC6724996 source
- Not checked yetcites [68] Zhang S Murphy TH 2007 Imaging the impact of cortical microcirculation on synaptic structure and sensory-evoked hemodynamic responses in vivo PLoS Biol 5 e119 17456007 PMC1854912 source
- Not checked yetcites [69] Murphy TH 2008 Two-photon imaging of stroke onset in vivo reveals that NMDA-receptor independent ischemic depolarization is the major cause of rapid reversible damage to dendrites and spines J Neurosci 28 1756 1772 18272696 PMC6671530 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Not only are these protrusions heterogeneous in shape [23–25], their density also changes during development and varies among different types of neurons [26–28].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [26] Nimchinsky EA 2002 Structure and function of dendritic spines Annu Rev Physiol 64 313 353 11826272 source
- Not checked yetcites [27] Zuo Y 2005 Long-term sensory deprivation prevents dendritic spine loss in primary somatosensory cortex Nature 436 261 265 16015331 source
- Not checked yetcites [28] Holtmaat AJ 2005 Transient and persistent dendritic spines in the neocortex in vivo Neuron 45 279 291 15664179 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Following stroke, dendritic branch remodeling and spine formation are selectively elevated in the peri-infarct area, leading to a gradual recovery of spine density between 1 and 6 weeks [70, 71].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Brown CE 2007 Extensive turnover of dendritic spines and vascular remodeling in cortical tissues recovering from stroke J Neurosci 27 4101 4109 17428988 PMC6672555 source
- Not checked yetcites [71] Brown CE 2010 Longitudinal in vivo imaging reveals balanced and branch-specific remodeling of mature cortical pyramidal dendritic arbors after stroke J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 30 783 791 19920846 PMC2949167 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Between 1 to 4 months of age, more spines are lost than formed in all cortical regions examined, resulting in a ~30% pruning of total spines [27, 36].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Zuo Y 2005 Long-term sensory deprivation prevents dendritic spine loss in primary somatosensory cortex Nature 436 261 265 16015331 source
- Not checked yetcites [36] Zuo Y 2005 Development of long-term dendritic spine stability in diverse regions of cerebral cortex Neuron 46 181 189 15848798 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In adults, more than 70% of spines are stable over 18 months, with comparable rates of spine formation and elimination [36, 39].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In summary, despite the debate on the baseline of spine dynamics (Box 2), it is now believed that dendritic spines change their morphology and turn over rapidly in developing animals but become much more stable in adults.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“While filopodia turn over on a daily basis, spines are much more stable [36, 39].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Since post-stroke behavioral recovery is thought to be dependent on adjacent, surviving tissues taking over the function of damaged tissues, these studies provide a structural basis for functional reorganization in the peri-infarct region.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Brown CE 2007 Extensive turnover of dendritic spines and vascular remodeling in cortical tissues recovering from stroke J Neurosci 27 4101 4109 17428988 PMC6672555 source
- Not checked yetcites [71] Brown CE 2010 Longitudinal in vivo imaging reveals balanced and branch-specific remodeling of mature cortical pyramidal dendritic arbors after stroke J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 30 783 791 19920846 PMC2949167 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, less than 20% of these newly formed spines persist for more than 2 days, suggesting that spine stabilization is a highly selective process [36].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Zuo Y 2005 Development of long-term dendritic spine stability in diverse regions of cerebral cortex Neuron 46 181 189 15848798 source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Since new spines are more vulnerable for elimination and only a small percentage of them are stabilized over time [37, 38], the degree of spine dynamics does not necessarily increase linearly with increased imaging intervals.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
- Not checked yetcites [38] Yang G 2009 Stably maintained dendritic spines are associated with lifelong memories Nature 462 920 924 19946265 PMC4724802 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, while shorter time intervals are biased towards the changes of transient structures, longer time intervals are likely to underestimate the structural plasticity.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This in line with previous findings that found that excitatory-inhibitory balance is crucial for correct development of visual function during the critical period [45], thus suggesting that spine maturation and plasticity is an important underlying component of the functional changes that occur in the visual pathway.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [45] Fagiolini M Hensch TK 2000 Inhibitory threshold for critical-period activation in primary visual cortex Nature 404 183 186 10724170 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In addition, monocular deprivation (MD) increases spine formation and leads to a higher spine density selectively in the apical dendrites of L5 neurons in the mouse binocular region [30].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Hofer SB 2009 Experience leaves a lasting structural trace in cortical circuits Nature 457 313 317 19005470 PMC6485433 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Given the cell-type dependent dendrite morphology and dynamics [28–30], the inconsistency in baseline dynamics of dendritic spines could be due to variation in neuronal subtypes labeled in these two different mouse lines.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Holtmaat AJ 2005 Transient and persistent dendritic spines in the neocortex in vivo Neuron 45 279 291 15664179 source
- Not checked yetcites [29] Holtmaat A 2006 Experience-dependent and cell-type-specific spine growth in the neocortex Nature 441 979 983 16791195 source
- Not checked yetcites [30] Hofer SB 2009 Experience leaves a lasting structural trace in cortical circuits Nature 457 313 317 19005470 PMC6485433 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A few days of light exposure during the critical period (i.e., postnatal days (P) 21–28 in mice) decreases spine motility and restores the mature spine morphology [32].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [32] Tropea D 2010 Structural dynamics of synapses in vivo correlate with functional changes during experience-dependent plasticity in visual cortex J Neurosci 30 11086 11095 20720116 PMC2932955 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, it has been shown that filopodia almost completely turnover on a daily basis [36], thus including or excluding filopodia in the analysis may greatly contribute to the discrepancy between results.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Zuo Y 2005 Development of long-term dendritic spine stability in diverse regions of cerebral cortex Neuron 46 181 189 15848798 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Since the dynamics of dendritic spines [28, 36] decrease with age, it could therefore be hard to compare between different baselines.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Plasticity during development
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] Holtmaat AJ 2005 Transient and persistent dendritic spines in the neocortex in vivo Neuron 45 279 291 15664179 source
- Not checked yetcites [36] Zuo Y 2005 Development of long-term dendritic spine stability in diverse regions of cerebral cortex Neuron 46 181 189 15848798 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, elimination during subsequent training is largely restricted to spines that existed before training, while the new spines induced during learning are found to be preferentially stabilized, even long after training stops (i.e., up to 4 months) [37]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given the fact that distal and proximal forelimb corticospinal neurons are intermingled within the rat motor cortex [47], this finding indicates that structural changes during learning are restricted to discrete subsets of neurons preferentially involved in novel motor experience.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [47] Wang L 2010 Structural plasticity within highly specific neuronal populations identifies a unique parcellation of motor learning in the adult brain Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 10.1073/pnas.1014335108 PMC3038698 21257908 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In adult mice (>4 months), sensory manipulation continues to modify spine dynamics, but less robustly than in younger animals, suggesting a more rigid neuronal circuit in adult animals [27].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [27] Zuo Y 2005 Long-term sensory deprivation prevents dendritic spine loss in primary somatosensory cortex Nature 436 261 265 16015331 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, subsequent MD fails to increase spine formation, but selectively enlarges the spines formed during earlier MD, suggesting that new spines formed during the initial MD bear functional synapses and are reactivated during the second MD [30]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Hofer SB 2009 Experience leaves a lasting structural trace in cortical circuits Nature 457 313 317 19005470 PMC6485433 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“When binocular vision is restored, spine formation returns to the baseline. However, spine density remains elevated and many of the new spines formed during MD persist [30].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Hofer SB 2009 Experience leaves a lasting structural trace in cortical circuits Nature 457 313 317 19005470 PMC6485433 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“During early postnatal development in rats, trimming all whiskers unilaterally decreases both spine and filopodium motility in the contralateral barrel cortex during a brief time window (P11–13), but has no effect on their density, length or shape [17].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [17] Lendvai B 2000 Experience-dependent plasticity of dendritic spines in the developing rat barrel cortex in vivo Nature 404 876 881 10786794 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This rapid spinogenesis is followed by enhanced spine elimination, resulting in a similar overall spine density to that observed in control mice.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, subsequent training of pre-trained mice with a novel motor skill continues to induce a robust spinogenesis in the adult motor cortex, indicating that different motor skills are likely encoded by different subpopulations of synapses in the motor cortex [37]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Using a lentivirus expressing EGFP that was intracranially injected into the HVC nucleus, this study demonstrated that spine dynamics of HVC neurons decreased with age, and song learning around P60 triggered rapid dendritic spine stabilization of HVC neurons [48].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] Roberts TF 2010 Rapid spine stabilization and synaptic enhancement at the onset of behavioural learning Nature 463 948 952 20164928 PMC2918377 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In adults, motor learning increases spine turnover in naïve mice, but not in mice that have been trained with the same task in adolescence (pre-trained mice) [37], suggesting that the circuit required for such a task is established during adolescent training and maintained into adulthood.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition, stabilized new spines outlast experiences per se and may serve as structural traces for earlier memories, therefore preparing the brain for quicker adaptation to similar experiences in the future [30, 37].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Hofer SB 2009 Experience leaves a lasting structural trace in cortical circuits Nature 457 313 317 19005470 PMC6485433 source
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Interestingly, a higher degree of spine turnover before song learning was found to correlate with a greater capacity for subsequent song imitation, suggesting that structural dynamics in sensorimotor circuits may greatly contribute to behavioral outcomes [48]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] Roberts TF 2010 Rapid spine stabilization and synaptic enhancement at the onset of behavioural learning Nature 463 948 952 20164928 PMC2918377 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Live imaging of interneuron dendritic arbors in young adult mice (older than 6 weeks) demonstrated that, unlike stable dendritic branches observed in pyramidal neurons, dendritic branches of inhibitory interneurons in the superficial layers of the cortex are very dynamic [57]”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of inhibitory interneurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [57] Lee WC 2006 Dynamic remodeling of dendritic arbors in GABAergic interneurons of adult visual cortex PLoS Biol 4 e29 16366735 PMC1318477 source
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Furthermore, learning-induced spine formation occurs at the expense of spines that exist before learning [37], suggesting that homeostatic regulation could play an important role in maintaining stable spine density in the adult brain.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of excitatory pyramidal neurons > Experience-dependent plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Cajal-Retzius axons grow slowly and follow tortuous paths, while thalamocortical axons grow quickly and straight [60].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] Portera-Cailliau C 2005 Diverse modes of axon elaboration in the developing neocortex PLoS Biol 3 e272 16026180 PMC1180514 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“At this age, both axon types favor an overall growth in the superficial cortical layers, with slightly more terminal extension than retraction [60].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] Portera-Cailliau C 2005 Diverse modes of axon elaboration in the developing neocortex PLoS Biol 3 e272 16026180 PMC1180514 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This is on the same order of dendritic spine turnover observed in L5 pyramidal neurons during sensory manipulation and motor learning [30, 37, 38], suggesting comparable degrees of structural remodeling of excitatory and inhibitory synapses in the adult cortex.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of inhibitory interneurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Hofer SB 2009 Experience leaves a lasting structural trace in cortical circuits Nature 457 313 317 19005470 PMC6485433 source
- Not checked yetcites [37] Xu T 2009 Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories Nature 462 915 919 19946267 PMC2844762 source
- Not checked yetcites [38] Yang G 2009 Stably maintained dendritic spines are associated with lifelong memories Nature 462 920 924 19946265 PMC4724802 source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The distribution of dynamic branches and the timeline of remodeling were also found to be laminar dependent [10].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Dendritic plasticity of inhibitory interneurons
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [10] Chen JL Nedivi E 2010 Neuronal structural remodeling: is it all about access? Curr Opin Neurobiol 20 557 562 20621466 PMC2946477 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In summary, cortical axons undergo rapid and large-scale rearrangements both during development and in response to injuries.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In contrast, axons from mouse cortical L6 neurons contain a high density of small terminaux boutons, which are highly dynamic with ~60% turnover during the same period [59].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] De Paola V 2006 Cell type-specific structural plasticity of axonal branches and boutons in the adult neocortex Neuron 49 861 875 16543134 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thalamocortical axons contain large terminaux boutons and en passant boutons, which are mostly stable with 85% boutons persisting over a month [59].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Axonal plasticity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [59] De Paola V 2006 Cell type-specific structural plasticity of axonal branches and boutons in the adult neocortex Neuron 49 861 875 16543134 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In the case of dendritic spines, evidence from classic electron microscopy (EM) studies has demonstrated that spine volume correlates with the size of the postsynaptic density and the number of presynaptic vesicles (see reviews [23, 64]), suggesting that larger spines have stronger synapses.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Structural plasticity and functional synapses
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [23] Bourne JN Harris KM 2008 Balancing structure and function at hippocampal dendritic spines Annu Rev Neurosci 31 47 67 18284372 PMC2561948 source
- Not checked yetcites [64] Arellano JI 2007 Ultrastructure of dendritic spines: correlation between synaptic and spine morphologies Front Neurosci 1 131 143 18982124 PMC2518053 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In adults, despite the global stability of axonal and dendritic stability, a small subset of synaptic structures have been observed to turn over rapidly.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent developments in high-throughput, automated sectioning and imaging overcome this impasse and potentially make ultrastructural analysis of imaged tissues routine [86, 87].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [86] Knott GW 2009 A protocol for preparing GFP-labeled neurons previously imaged in vivo and in slice preparations for light and electron microscopic analysis Nat Protoc 4 1145 1156 19617886 source
- Not checked yetcites [87] Knott G 2008 Serial section scanning electron microscopy of adult brain tissue using focused ion beam milling J Neurosci 28 2959 2964 18353998 PMC6670719 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The recent development of genetically encoded calcium indicators [89–91] and innovations in imaging neuronal activity in awake, head-fixed mice [92–96] have opened new opportunities toward this direction.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [89] Tian L 2009 Imaging neural activity in worms, flies and mice with improved GCaMP calcium indicators Nat Methods 6 875 881 19898485 PMC2858873 source
- Not checked yetcites [90] Mank M 2008 A genetically encoded calcium indicator for chronic in vivo two-photon imaging Nat Methods 5 805 811 19160515 PMC7618336 source
- Not checked yetcites [91] Wallace DJ 2008 Single-spike detection in vitro and in vivo with a genetic Ca2+ sensor Nat Methods 5 797 804 19160514 source
- Not checked yetcites [92] Dombeck DA 2007 Imaging large-scale neural activity with cellular resolution in awake, mobile mice Neuron 56 43 57 17920014 PMC2268027 source
- Not checked yetcites [93] Andermann ML 2010 Chronic cellular imaging of mouse visual cortex during operant behavior and passive viewing Front Cell Neurosci 4 3 20407583 PMC2854571
- Not checked yetcites [94] Niell CM Stryker MP 2010 Modulation of visual responses by behavioral state in mouse visual cortex Neuron 65 472 479 20188652 PMC3184003 source
- Not checked yetcites [95] Komiyama T 2010 Learning-related fine-scale specificity imaged in motor cortex circuits of behaving mice Nature 464 1182 1186 20376005 source
- Not checked yetcites [96] Dombeck DA 2010 Functional imaging of hippocampal place cells at cellular resolution during virtual navigation Nat Neurosci 13 1433 1440 20890294 PMC2967725 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While most cell-type-specific lines label the whole population of target cell types and are useful for molecular examination and manipulation, imaging them is challenging due to the high density of neurons within the cortex and/or dim expression of the EGFP reporter gene.”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The Gene Expression Nervous System Atlas (GENSAT) project has generated hundreds of mouse lines that express EGFP under different bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) [83, 84].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A recent screen using these lines has identified several mouse lines selectively labeling inhibitory neurons in unique retinal circuits [85].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [85] Siegert S 2009 Genetic address book for retinal cell types Nat Neurosci 12 1197 1204 19648912 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For instance, the functional imaging of individual hippocampal pyramidal neurons during spatial navigation in behaving mice has recently been described [96].”
§ Experience-dependent Structural Plasticity in the Cortex > Concluding remarks
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [96] Dombeck DA 2010 Functional imaging of hippocampal place cells at cellular resolution during virtual navigation Nat Neurosci 13 1433 1440 20890294 PMC2967725 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper relies on this without support.
Synapses are located along the dendrites of aspiny interneurons.
“Given the fact that synapses are located along dendrites of aspiny interneurons”
The paper relies on this without support.
In vivo structural imaging is currently limited to superficial cortical layers (mostly L1 and L2) due to limitations of current two-photon laser scanning systems.
“Due to the limitation of current two-photon laser scanning systems, in vivo structural imaging is currently limited to superficial cortical layers (mostly L1 and L2).”
The paper relies on this without support.
Different cortical layers have different connectivity.
“Given the different connectivity between the different cortical layers, it may not be appropriate to simply extend the present understanding obtained from superficial layers to deeper layers of the cortex.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“These experience-dependent mechanisms regulate the sensitivity and plasticity of the central nervous system and act at several biological levels (likely partly in parallel with each other): i) cellular changes such as neurogenesis, pruning and sprouting of synapses, myelination of axons and alterations to the number of dendritic spines9, 10, ii) subcellular changes, such as alterations to the”
From Resilience in mental health: linking psychological and neurobiological perspectives. (2013) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, their morphology and dynamics vary among neuronal types, across developmental stages, and in response to experiences such as sensory stimulation and deprivation, environmental enrichment, and various paradigms of learning (Holtmaat and Svoboda, 2009; Fu and Zuo, 2011).”
From Spatiotemporal dynamics of dendritic spines in the living brain (2014) · cites this paper as Fu and Zuo, 2011
Citations
Cites
James, W. (1891) · Personality Culture Society · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,876
Two-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy
Denk, W., Strickler, J. H., & Webb, W. W. (1990) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2321027 · Cited by 9,488
Imaging Neuronal Subsets in Transgenic Mice Expressing Multiple Spectral Variants of GFP
Feng, G., Mellor, R. H., Bernstein, M., Keller-Peck, C., Nguyen, Q. T., Wallace, M., Nerbonne, J. M., Lichtman, J. W., & Sanes, J. R. (2000) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(00)00084-2 · Cited by 3,042
The period of susceptibility to the physiological effects of unilateral eye closure in kittens
Hubel, D. H., & Wiesel, T. N. (1970) · The Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jphysiol.1970.sp009022 · Cited by 3,030
Interneurons of the neocortical inhibitory system
Markram, H., Toledo-Rodriguez, M., Wang, Y., Gupta, A., Silberberg, G., & Wu, C. (2004) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1519 · Cited by 2,954
SINGLE-CELL RESPONSES IN STRIATE CORTEX OF KITTENS DEPRIVED OF VISION IN ONE EYE
Wiesel, T. N., & Hubel, D. H. (1963) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.1963.26.6.1003 · Cited by 2,628
A gene expression atlas of the central nervous system based on bacterial artificial chromosomes
Gong, S., Zheng, C., Doughty, M. L., Losos, K., Didkovsky, N., Schambra, U. B., Nowak, N. J., Joyner, A., Leblanc, G., Hatten, M. E., et al. (2003) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature02033 · Cited by 2,108
Imaging neural activity in worms, flies and mice with improved GCaMP calcium indicators
Tian, L., Hires, S. A., Mao, T., Huber, D., Chiappe, M. E., Chalasani, S. H., Petreanu, L., Akerboom, J., McKinney, S. A., Schreiter, E. R., et al. (2009) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/nmeth.1398 · Cited by 1,967
Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain
Holtmaat, A., & Svoboda, K. (2009) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2699 · Cited by 1,934
Long-term in vivo imaging of experience-dependent synaptic plasticity in adult cortex
Trachtenberg, J. T., Chen, B. E., Knott, G. W., Feng, G., Sanes, J. R., Welker, E., & Svoboda, K. (2002) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature01273 · Cited by 1,927
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- James, 1890, Vol. 1
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Microglia mediate forgetting via complement-dependent synaptic elimination
Wang, C., Yue, H., Hu, Z., Shen, Y., Ma, J., Li, J., Wang, X.-D., Wang, L., Sun, B., Shi, P., et al. (2020) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aaz2288 · Cited by 629
Differences in negativity bias underlie variations in political ideology
Hibbing, J. R., Smith, K. B., & Alford, J. R. (2014) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x13001192 · Cited by 649
Repetitive motor learning induces coordinated formation of clustered dendritic spines in vivo
Fu, M., Yu, X., Lu, J., & Zuo, Y. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature10844 · Cited by 493
Self-citationSpine Dynamics: Are They All the Same?
Berry, K., & Nedivi, E. (2017) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.08.008 · Cited by 497
Resilience in mental health: linking psychological and neurobiological perspectives.
Rutten, B. P. F., Hammels, C., Geschwind, N., Menne‐Lothmann, C., Pishva, E., Schruers, K., van den Hove, D., Kenis, G., van Os, J., & Wichers, M. (2013) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/acps.12095 · Cited by 418
Metadata
- Authors
- Fu, M., & Zuo, Y.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Cruz (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zuo, Yi
- ORCID
- Zuo, Yi
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-04
- Volume
- 34
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 177-187
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3073830
- OpenAlex
- W2105232223
- Cited by
- 322
- References
- 97
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 16 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 29 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 13 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 32 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 2.65
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Ellison Medical Foundation
- National Institute on Aging (R01AG031871)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neuropharmacology Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
- Keywords
- experience-dependent plasticity, structural synaptic plasticity, cortical synapses, synaptic pruning, synaptogenesis, two-photon imaging, time-lapse imaging, sensorimotor learning, memory consolidation, cortical layers, neuronal cell types, circuit plasticity
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cerebral Cortex, Dendrites, Learning, Memory, Neuronal Plasticity, Synapses, Time-Lapse Imaging
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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