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Demystifying cognitive flexibility: Implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience
Open accessAbstract
Cognitive flexibility, the readiness with which one can selectively switch between mental processes to generate appropriate behavioral responses, develops in a protracted manner and is compromised in several prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders. It is unclear whether cognitive flexibility arises from neural substrates distinct from the executive control network (ECN) or from the interplay of nodes within this and other networks. Here we review neuroimaging studies of cognitive flexibility, focusing on set shifting and task switching. We propose that more consistent operationalization and study of cognitive flexibility is required in clinical and developmental neuroscience. We suggest that an important avenue for future research is the characterization of the relationship between neural flexibility and cognitive flexibility in typical and atypical development.
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“The WCST assesses set-shifting. Participants must adapt their strategy to changing criteria such as color or shape – a core aspect of cognitive flexibility (118).”
From Neural mechanisms underlying cognitive inflexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review (2026) · cites this paper as [118]
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In the citing paper
“Such dysregulation might be partially reversible via CBTs, which aim to improve psychological inflexibility, possibly mediated by the AI, ACC, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) (Dajani and Uddin 2015).”
From Baseline Functional Connectivity of the Mesolimbic, Salience, and Sensorimotor Systems Predicts Responses to Psychological Therapies for Chronic Low Back Pain With Comorbid Depression: A Functional MRI Study (2025) · cites this paper as Dajani and Uddin 2015
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In the citing paper
“it is a rich construct that has a notable and well-established history (Dajani & Uddin, 2015).”
From Defining and measuring “psychological flexibility”: A narrative scoping review of diverse flexibility and rigidity constructs and perspectives (2021) · cites this paper as Dajani & Uddin, 2015
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“EFs encompass several subdomains, including planning for future goals, inhibiting maladaptive responses, maintaining and manipulating information in working memory, and flexibly adapting behaviors to changes in the environment6.”
From Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders (2016) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“This work has identified large-scale functional brain networks encompassing lateral and orbital frontoparietal, midcingulo-insular and frontostriatal regions that support flexibility across the lifespan.”
From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive flexibility is difficult to isolate, as it requires the confluence of several aspects of executive function20,28.”
From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“A large body of literature on human functional neuroimaging studies using task-switching and set-shifting paradigms points to a central role for the lateral frontoparietal network (L-FPN) and the midcingulo-insular network (M-CIN) in supporting executive function and cognitive flexibility20,30.”
From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Decades of functional neuroimaging work has delineated brain networks underlying EFs that contribute to cognitive flexibility (21,22), namely the executive control/lateral frontoparietal (L-FPN) and salience/midcingulo-insular networks (M-CIN) (23–25).”
From Brain Mechanisms Supporting Flexible Cognition and Behavior in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
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Background[Neural dynamics of cognitive flexibility: spatiotemporal analysis of event-related potentials].
Cao, Y., Zhou, S., & Wang, Y. (2017) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · doi:10.3969/j.issn.1673-4254.2017.06.07 · Cited by 4
Womelsdorf, T., Watson, M. R., & Tiesinga, P. H. E. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.09.27.315432 · Cited by 4
Bulgarelli, C., Blasi, A., McCann, S., Milosavljevic, B., Ghillia, G., Mbye, E., Touray, E., Fadera, T., Acolatse, L., Moore, S. E., et al. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.94194.1 · Cited by 4
Medina, S., Forero, C. G., Sanabria‐Mazo, J. P., Rodríguez‐Freire, C., Navarrete, J., O'Daly, O. G., Howard, M. A., & Luciano, J. V. (2025) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.70380 · Cited by 3
“Such dysregulation might be partially reversible via CBTs, which aim to improve psychological inflexibility, possibly mediated by the AI, ACC, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) (Dajani and Uddin 2015).”
Veltro, F., Latte, G., Pontarelli, C., Barcella, M., Silveri, L., Cardone, G., Nicchiniello, I., Pontarelli, I., Zappone, L., Luso, S., et al. (2024) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-06033-2 · Cited by 3
“However, despite its importance, a comparison of this variable is not possible because there are few data about the psychiatric rehabilitation in PRFs; never-theless, Dajani et al. [67] stated that more studies about cognitive flexibility are required.”
BackgroundJiménez, J. E., Baladé, J., García, E., & Chen, B. X. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0315748 · Cited by 3
Altered Insula Functional Connectivity Correlates to Cognitive Flexibility in Insomnia
Yang, S., Fan, Y., Zhang, Z., & Lei, X. (2025) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-025-01116-z · Cited by 3
“…cognitive flexibility in insomnia patients, it is crucial to examine the role of the Ins, a key brain region involved in the salience network (Uddin 2015), closely connected with the anterior cingulate cortex and parietal lobes (Namkung (STG) ( r = 0.337, p 0.001), the left STG ( r = 0.34,…”
InfluentialZhang, W., Huang, Y.-X., Mei, Y., Wang, J., Dou, H., & Lei, Y. (2025) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2025.100581 · Cited by 3
“…of shifting ability: on one hand, individual differences in shifting ability are linked to adaptive regulation, with higher shifting ability facilitating quicker adjustments in emotional and cognitive strategies (Dajani & Uddin, 2015; Friedman & Miyake, 2017; Ionescu, 2012; Karbach & Kray, 2009).”
An integrative model of perseverative thinking
Mattioni, L., Nikčević, A. V., Ferri, F., Spada, M. M., & Sestieri, C. (2025) · Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/19585969.2025.2481658 · Cited by 9
“Flexibility emerges from the efficient combination of diverse executive function subcomponents (Diamond 2013; Dajani and uddin 2015).”
Harrington, D. L., Shen, Q., Angeles‐Quinto, A., Nichols, S., Song, T., Hansen, H., Yurgil, K. A., Lee, R. R., Baker, D. G., & Huang, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1591938 · Cited by 4
Han, Y., Dong, A., Xia, C., Zhang, Z., Hu, W., He, T., Cui, X., Xu, C., Xu, H., Zhou, Z., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2025.1631236 · Cited by 3
“This deficit is considered a key contributor to the RRBs and limited interests characteristic of ASD (Dajani and Uddin, 2015; Geurts et al., 2009), as individuals struggle to shift attention or adjust strategies when confronted with novel situations (Dajani and Uddin, 2015; Lage et al., 2024).”
Epigenetics of neural networks in neurocognitive conditions: A review
Stolberg, V. B. (2025) · Brain Network Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.bnd.2025.08.001 · Cited by 3
Lucas, J. D., Lackner, J., Gudleski, G. D., Rogers, A. H., Becerra, R., & Naragon‐Gainey, K. (2025) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911251399030 · Cited by 4
Varghese, R., Fiske, A., & Holmboe, K. (2026) · Frontiers in Developmental Psychology · doi:10.3389/fdpys.2026.1752676 · Cited by 5
Closed-loop stimulation modulates attention shifting in children
Warsi, N. M., Wong, S. M., Mithani, K., Coleman, S. C., Arski, O. N., Suresh, H., Germann, J., Boutet, A., Erdman, L., Gouveia, F. V., et al. (2026) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-026-02294-0 · Cited by 4
“Deficits in attentional flexibility are common to a diverse range of neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders, including ADHD 3,4,13,14 and epilepsy 10–12 .”
InfluentialExecutive Function and Self-Injurious Thoughts and Behaviors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Cheek, S. M., Walsh, R. F. L., Barnes, S. E., Hall, T. A. R., Sheehan, A. E., Carosa, C. L., Lindley, A. A., Velotta, S. K., & Liu, R. T. (2026) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2026.05.010 · Cited by 3
Tabet, S., Laguë-Beauvais, M., Francoeur, C., Sheehan, A., Abouassaly, M., Marcoux, J., Dagher, J. H., Ursulet, A., Colucci, E., & de Guise, É. (2021) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2021.2002866 · Cited by 5
“In addition to the “ set-shifting ” mechanism (Dajani & Uddin, 2015), this task could also involve the concept of “ generativity.”
BackgroundHan, J., Zhuang, K., Yi, H., Jiang, Y., Ling, Y., Fan, L., Liu, Y., & Chen, H. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106309 · Cited by 3
Cheek, S. M., Kudinova, A. Y., Kuzyk, E., Goldston, D. B., & Liu, R. T. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.07.075 · Cited by 3
The Mediating Role Of Cognitive Flexibility Between Self Forgiveness And Psychological Well-Being
Kaygas, Y., & Kılınç, E. (2023) · e-International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.19160/e-ijer.1292712 · Cited by 3
Barber, K. E., Woods, D. W., Deckersbach, T., Bauer, C. C., Compton, S. N., Twohig, M., Ricketts, E., Robinson, J., Saunders, S. M., & Franklin, M. E. (2024) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2024.104556 · Cited by 3
The Role of Mindfulness Therapy in the Treatment of Chronic Pain
Biao, D., Umoh, K., Qiguang, C., Xiaole, W., Ting, F., Yuqian, Y., Jinchao, Z., & Fushui, L. (2024) · Current Pain and Headache Reports · doi:10.1007/s11916-024-01284-w · Cited by 4
Bilişsel Esneklik Araştırmalarının Bibliyometrik Analizi ve Geleceğe Dair Görüler
Toraman, Ç., Çalişkan, Ç., & Korkmaz, G. (2024) · Pamukkale University Journal of Education · doi:10.9779/pauefd.1521299 · Cited by 3
Curiosity and the Regulation of Affective Memory
Ham, J., Murty, V. P., & Helion, C. (2024) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/17540739241303500 · Cited by 3
“Neurobiologically, both curiosity (Cervera et al., 2020) and fl exibility (Dajani & Uddin, 2015) are associated with activity in the dACC.”
Theory-driven assessment of cognitive flexibility in bulimia nervosa: a preliminary study
Heled, E., Goshen, K., Kushnir, T., Gur, E., & Maron-Olerasho, S. (2024) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2024.2442606 · Cited by 3
“The present study will employ the CF subtypes suggested by Dajani and Uddin (2015): .”
InfluentialAlexithymia Moderates Salience Effects in Emotional Facial Expression Perception and Recognition
Mas, M., & Luminet, O. (2025) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.70037 · Cited by 3
Zheng, S., Zhang, B., Zhou, H., & Wang, M. (2025) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs15040422 · Cited by 4
“…reliant on the dynamic shifting of attentional focus (e.g., task rule changes) and coordinated activation of the prefrontal–parietal network (Dajani & Uddin, 2015), can be effectively trained by integrating mindfulness with targeted task-switching exercises (e.g., Wisconsin Card Sorting)…”
Computational Perspectives on Cognition in Anorexia Nervosa: A Systematic Review
Radzikowska, M., Pike, A. C., & Hall-McMaster, S. (2025) · Computational Psychiatry · doi:10.5334/cpsy.128 · Cited by 4
Chen, M., Jiang, J., Han, C., Liu, X., Zhang, X., & Peng, L. (2025) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2025.100567 · Cited by 3
“Cognitive flexibility begins to emerge in early childhood and continues to develop as the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and other regions mature, remaining plasticity even into early adult-hood(Dajani & Uddin, 2015; Ganesan & Steinbeis, 2022).”
Integrating optical neuroscience tools into touchscreen operant systems
Piantadosi, P. T., Princz‐Lebel, O., Skirzewski, M., Dumont, J. R., Palmer, D. D., Memar, S., Saksida, L. M., Prado, V. F., Prado, M. A. M., Bussey, T. J., et al. (2025) · Nature Protocols · doi:10.1038/s41596-025-01143-x · Cited by 6
“Reversibility enables powerful within-subjects experimental designs, while temporal precision affords dissection of discrete cognitive constructs that often occur in a close temporal procession 53–56 .”
Executive dysfunctions impair and levodopa improves articulatory timing in Parkinson‘s disease
Herbig, E., Mücke, D., Barbe, M. T., & Thies, T. (2025) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2025.1580376 · Cited by 3
Cognitive, Emotional, and Behavioral Inflexibility and Perseveration in Neuropsychiatric Illness
Weisholtz, D. S., Sullivan, J. F., Nelson, A. P., Daffner, K. R., & Silbersweig, D. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-803676-1.00010-6 · Cited by 3
Nejad, M. H., Heidari, H., & Davoudi, H. (2020) · Journal of Research in Behavioural Sciences · doi:10.52547/rbs.18.2.169 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Dajani, D. R., & Uddin, L. Q.
- Affiliations
- University of Miami (US)
- Corresponding author
- Uddin, Lucina Q.
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-09
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 571-578
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5414037
- OpenAlex
- W1783354124
- Cited by
- 1,046
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 134 · 2025: 158 · 2024: 147 · 2023: 135 · 2022: 118 · 2021: 127 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 2.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression
- National Institute of Mental Health (K01MH092288, R01MH107549)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- cognitive flexibility, frontoparietal network, set-shifting, task switching, neural flexibility, neurodevelopmental disorders, developmental neuroscience, clinical neuroscience
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Brain, Cognition, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Memory, Short-Term, Executive Function
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