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Demystifying cognitive flexibility: Implications for clinical and developmental neuroscience
Open accessAbstract
Cognitive flexibility, the readiness with which one can selectively switch between mental processes to generate appropriate behavioral responses, develops in a protracted manner and is compromised in several prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders. It is unclear whether cognitive flexibility arises from neural substrates distinct from the executive control network (ECN) or from the interplay of nodes within this and other networks. Here we review neuroimaging studies of cognitive flexibility, focusing on set shifting and task switching. We propose that more consistent operationalization and study of cognitive flexibility is required in clinical and developmental neuroscience. We suggest that an important avenue for future research is the characterization of the relationship between neural flexibility and cognitive flexibility in typical and atypical development.
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“The WCST assesses set-shifting. Participants must adapt their strategy to changing criteria such as color or shape – a core aspect of cognitive flexibility (118).”
From Neural mechanisms underlying cognitive inflexibility in obsessive-compulsive disorder: a review (2026) · cites this paper as [118]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Such dysregulation might be partially reversible via CBTs, which aim to improve psychological inflexibility, possibly mediated by the AI, ACC, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) (Dajani and Uddin 2015).”
From Baseline Functional Connectivity of the Mesolimbic, Salience, and Sensorimotor Systems Predicts Responses to Psychological Therapies for Chronic Low Back Pain With Comorbid Depression: A Functional MRI Study (2025) · cites this paper as Dajani and Uddin 2015
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In the citing paper
“it is a rich construct that has a notable and well-established history (Dajani & Uddin, 2015).”
From Defining and measuring “psychological flexibility”: A narrative scoping review of diverse flexibility and rigidity constructs and perspectives (2021) · cites this paper as Dajani & Uddin, 2015
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“EFs encompass several subdomains, including planning for future goals, inhibiting maladaptive responses, maintaining and manipulating information in working memory, and flexibly adapting behaviors to changes in the environment6.”
From Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders (2016) · cites this paper as [6]
In the citing paper
“This work has identified large-scale functional brain networks encompassing lateral and orbital frontoparietal, midcingulo-insular and frontostriatal regions that support flexibility across the lifespan.”
From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Cognitive flexibility is difficult to isolate, as it requires the confluence of several aspects of executive function20,28.”
From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“A large body of literature on human functional neuroimaging studies using task-switching and set-shifting paradigms points to a central role for the lateral frontoparietal network (L-FPN) and the midcingulo-insular network (M-CIN) in supporting executive function and cognitive flexibility20,30.”
From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Decades of functional neuroimaging work has delineated brain networks underlying EFs that contribute to cognitive flexibility (21,22), namely the executive control/lateral frontoparietal (L-FPN) and salience/midcingulo-insular networks (M-CIN) (23–25).”
From Brain Mechanisms Supporting Flexible Cognition and Behavior in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder (2021) · cites this paper as [25]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Dajani, D. R., & Uddin, L. Q.
- Affiliations
- University of Miami (US)
- Corresponding author
- Uddin, Lucina Q.
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-09
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 571-578
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5414037
- OpenAlex
- W1783354124
- Cited by
- 1,046
- References
- 89
- Citations by year
- 2026: 134 · 2025: 158 · 2024: 147 · 2023: 135 · 2022: 118 · 2021: 127 · 2020: 72 · 2019: 66 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 15 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 2.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Alliance for Research on Schizophrenia and Depression
- National Institute of Mental Health (K01MH092288, R01MH107549)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
- Keywords
- cognitive flexibility, frontoparietal network, set-shifting, task switching, neural flexibility, neurodevelopmental disorders, developmental neuroscience, clinical neuroscience
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Brain, Cognition, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Memory, Short-Term, Executive Function
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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