Playing with risk? participant perceptions of risk and management implications in adventure tourism

“In a challenging activity, tourists aim to conquer goals for achievement and self-realization (Cater, 2006; Tsaur et al., 2013).”

“This argument could also be supported by the fact that risk was a positive element to motivate tourists to make travel decision in a risky situation (Cater, 2006).”

“The discussion further underlines the complexity of safety issues within the tourism industry (Cater, 2006 ; Fletcher, 2010 ).”

“…involves challenge, risk, uncertain outcomes, insight, excitement, stimulation, novelty, discovery and exploration, contrasting emotions, separation and escapism, focus and absorption, responsibility, commitment, anticipated rewards and play (Cater, 2006; Swarbrooke et al, 2003; Walle, 1997).”

“Although inherent in the definition of what constitutes adventure tourism, most recent studies have shown that it is not actual risk that motivates participants, but rather the perceptions of risk which manifests itself as what most researchers refer to as “thrill” (Cater, 2006; Carnicelli-Filho et al., 2010; Buckley,…”

“Nonetheless, there are forms of tourism, which are referred to as the so-called new tourism, that are involved in high levels of risks where adventure and uniqueness are outweighed by the risks of the activity (Boulais, 2017; Cater, 2006; Wang et al., 2019).”

“Consistent with earlier research (e.g. (Cater, 2006; Kiewa, 2001), the climbers in our study did not seek risk or climb because they valued risk itself; rather, they sought somewhat risky situations because they enjoyed mastering the risk by exercising their skills and solving problems.”

“…second problematic ramification of the current emphasis on risk is that there is an emerging literature base that reveals participant characteristics that suggests the risk focus is an over simplification (Cater 2006; Celsi, Rose, and Leigh 1993; Soreide, Ellingsen, and Knutson 2007; Storry 2003).”

“Nonetheless, Cater (2006) argues that adventure-seeking travelers desire the thrill of the experience, not the actual risk.”

“A significant part of the leisure industry is adventure activities that involve, for example, rock-climbing, mountain biking, skydiving, bungee jumping, and white-water rafting (Cater, 2006; Ewert, 1989; Pomfret, 2006; Priest, 1992).”

“outdoor recreation which blurs the definition of adventure tourism (Cater, 2006).”

“Various risks have been identified, including health, political, and environmental threats, with health risks being particularly prominent as tourism activities increasingly involve potential disease exposure (Cater 2006).”

“E‐mail: BarbieriC@missouri.edu perceived to encompass some risk, danger or fear to participants and are sought out by millions of people throughout North America and the world (Ewert, 1985; Cater, 2006).”

“Research has shown that differences in expectations, social, and cultural norms, as well as the emotional stability of the guide can highly influence the experiences of participants (Cater, 2006; Mackenzie & Kerr, 2012).”

“Among the differences between AT and other types of tourism, there is the degree of risk or difficulty involved (Cater, 2006).”

“The role of risk in adventure tourism has been examined extensively (see Cater, 2006; Fletcher, 2010; Holyfield, 1999; Holyfield, Jonas, & Zajicek, 2005).”

“Traditional perspectives on the adventure tourist often assume that participants possess particular characteristics, typically reflected in young, male, risk seekers (Cater, 2006; Elsrud, 2001; Palmer, 2002; Pizam et al., 2004).”

“The rebellious culture that emerged during the 1950s encouraged the development of adventure motorcycling (Cater, 2017; Price-Davies, 2011) and created a behaviour associated with this means of transportation. According to Sykes and Kelly (2014, 2016) and Walker (2011), people ride motorcycles to travel the world, vis…”

“Adventure travellers’ embodied experiences are experienced through a ‘fear and thrill’ search for pleasure and fun (Cater, 2006).”

“…perceived risk, excitement, and behavior were reported in outdoor recreation and adventure tourism (Alexandris, Kouthouris, Funk, & Giovani, 2009; Cater, 2006; Prayag & Jankee, 2009), as well as in extreme sports (Breivik, 1996; Levenson, 1990; Robinson, 1985; Rossi & Cereatti, 1993; Schneider,…”

“The notion of risk, however, has attracted most attention in research on ‘fast’ adventure tourism, as tourists are viewed as seeking thrill and paradoxically at the same time its reasonable, consistent and safe management (Buckley 2012; Cater 2006; Varley 2006).”

“Thus, adventure behaviors may be defined as the behaviors of an individual who is taking part in an adventure activity that involves risk, an uncertain outcome, and potential danger [2,9,29,43,44].”

“In attempts to answer these questions, debates about commodification, risk and uncertainty arise (see for example Beedie & Hudson, 2003; Cater, 2006; Fletcher, 2010; Holyfield, 1999; Larsen, Øgaard, & Brun, 2011; Rantala, Rokenes, & Valkonen, 2016; Swarbrooke, Beard, Leekie, & Pomfret, 2003;…”

“CAter C i 2006.”

“Based on previous studies, scholars have begun to conduct research on various aspects of flow experiences involving outdoor recreational activities [35], adventure recreation programs [8], mountaineering activities [36], and virtual tourism [37].”

“Adventure tour operators, outfitters and wilderness guides are thus the merchants of thrill (Cater, 2006), selling intense multisensory experiences through bungee-jumping, tandem-jumping or rafting courses.”

“…University of British Columbia, 210-6081 University Blvd, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z1 (Received 31 July 2014; accepted 17 September 2014) Adventure tours are a fast-growing segment of the tourism market and guide behaviour has been identified as a critical factor in tourist satisfaction.”

“The results may also support opinions presented in the literature that participants “don’t look for an objective danger per se but rather try to use their skills and competencies to face situational risk” (Martin & Priest, 1986) or “intentionally seek out fear and thrills for the pursuit of novel experiences” (Cater,…”

“If tourists can tolerate the risk of certain type, then they are likely to achieve satisfaction (Cater, 2006; Quintal, Lee, & Soutar, 2010).”

“In terms of the tourism research, Cater's [9] study on risk perception in expeditionary tourism supports similar conclusions, and he believes that although the impact of objective risk on the risk judgment process does exist, the role of subjective perception is more pronounced.”

“Finally, there is considerable literature on the individual and risk in adventure recreation and tourism (Cater, 2006; Ewert & Hollenhorst, 1989; Holyfield, 1999; Reisinger & Mavondo, 2005; Walle, 1997).”

“Within adventure, uncertainty and risk are put forward as appealing because they offer challenge in the form of unknown or novel experiences (Cater, 2006 ).”

“With regard to the first of the possible interpretations mentioned above, a number of researchers (Cater, 2006; MacCarthy et al., 2006; Miller & Taubman-Ben-Ari, 2004; Musa et al., 2006; Roos, 1979; Wilks, 1991) have found that participants of adventure tourism ‘play’ with their fears when…”

“As a result, few operators rely on direct sales alone, they also sell souvenirs, actively market other adventure products into adventure packages (such as the classic Queenstown ‘awesome foursome’) and encourage clients to patronise their onsite cafés (Buckley, 2006; Cater, 2006).”

“It is our perception, and also according to Cater [46] and Haegeli et al. [1], in order to access the needs of the outdoor recreation sector, this type of intervention should be done by specialists and supported by policies.”

“In essence, tourism risk perception is concerned with tourists making a judgement about the uncertainty of the possible results of tourism activities (Cater, 2006).”

“It has, for example, been promoted that environments play an essential role for adventure experiences in extreme destinations such as Queenstown (Cater, 2006), Spitsbergen in the Arctic (Gyimóthy & Mykletun, 2004), Northern Norway (Jensen, Chen, & Korneliussen, 2015) and Swedish ‘wilderness’…”

“, 2019), but this is not a goal of such experiences, and tourists seek exhilaration and excitement (Ewert, 2001), fear and thrills (Cater, 2006).”

“Second, adventure tourism activities as described in the literature are mostly those operated and controlled by commercial operators, usually occurring at specific sites, with operators taking sole responsibility for risk management (Cater, 2006).”

“Practitioners of adventure behavior must be highly skilled and fit [13].”

“Quotes from the interviews are reported directly from the respondents using pseudonyms, a ‘methodology that allows the researched community to vocalise their discourses’ (Cater, 2006, p. 319) rather than relying solely on the interpretation of the investigator.”

“However, contemporary perspectives have shifted towards highlighting the perceived risk or excitement rather than focusing solely on physical danger as the defining feature of adventure tourism (Cater, 2006; Giddy, 2020).”

“It seems more obvious that embodied experiences are easier to capture in cases of more intense activities, where the body is challenged and tested (Cater & Cloke, 2007; Cloke & Perkins, 1998). Cater (2006) explained that adventure tourism is ‘clearly about active participation with the body’ (p.”

“Through national trade and tourism promotions, New Zealand-ness has been promoted as risk-taking, adventurous and innovative in fields well beyond, but including, outdoor recreation, outdoor education and tourism (Bentley, Page, & Macky, 2007 ; Blumberg, 2008 ; Cater, 2006 ; Cloke & Perkins, 1998 ; ODENZ, n.”

“Nevertheless, the part of the picture which is presented does provide additional critical insight into the commercialised and commodified adventure sports industry and builds on the work of other authors in the field (see Holyfield, 1999; Cloke & Perkins, 2002; Cater, 2006).”

“skydiving, bungee jumping) (Cater, 2006), shark diving websites simultaneously promote thrill and adrenaline while capitalizing on people’s apparently innate fear of sharks”

“Similarly, Cater (2006), Dickson and Dolnicar (2004), and Quintal, Lee, and Soutar (2010) have all noted that risk-taking can contribute to the excitement and positive experience of travel.”

“…term “slow” with the term “adventure” maybe appear “odd” in present-day as adventure is typically associated with speed, rush and thrill (Buckley, 2012; Cater, 2006), however, it fits well as a reaction to the dominant borderline experience logic of the commodified “fast adventures” (Varley &…”

“A number of qualitative adventure recreation studies have used a similar method, utilising elements of induction albeit without labelling it as such (e.g. Celsi, Rose, and Leigh 1993; Kane and Tucker 2004; Cater 2006; Houge Mackenzie, Hodge, and Boyes 2011; Swann et al. 2017).”

“Adventure tourists ’ perceptions of risk (Cater, 2006; Dickson & Dolnicar, 2004; Kane & Tucker, 2004) and the general role of the guide (Boren et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2017; Mathisen, 2017; Weiler & Black, 2015) have also been widely discussed, while tourist safety has received less attention in…”

“Importantly, a complex system is driven by competing investments that are not based on a morally right path of action (Casti, 1994).”

“Thus, in selecting the appropriate tourism marketing strategy, especially for outdoor activities, managers should take responsibility for risk management by emphasizing the security of tour operators and the success of licensing authorities (Cater, 2006).”

“This analogy emphasizes an important but not exclusive motivation for participation in activity-based tours, which is the pursuit of exciting, or sometimes fear and horror-inspiring, adventures (Cater, 2006).”

“There has been extensive research on the opportunities for young people to experience risk through formally managed adventure in green spaces (e.g. Cater 2006; Hinds 2011; Lekies, Yost, and Rode 2015) and a small body of work also identifies a preference by young people for using certain green…”

“Risk is more relevant to visitor losses (Cater, 2006; King & Beeton, 2006), such as financial risk (Laroche et al., 2004), psychological risk (Roehl & Fesenmaier, 1992), social risk (Murray & Schlacter, 1990), and so forth, while uncertainty is more relevant to an unknown state, which means that…”

“While risk tourists might engage in seemingly dangerous activities, Cater (2006) posited that travelers often take measures to minimize such risks; consequently, their behavior should not be seen as reckless.”

“However, this does not mean that risk is real, but just perceived (Elsrud, 2001), therefore, Cater (2006) argues that fear feelings, instead of risk, are the true central attraction of adventure tourism. Weber (2001) reinforces the above idea stating that, in fact, tourists are actually concerned about their safety an…”