Playing with risk? participant perceptions of risk and management implications in adventure tourism

“In certain tourism settings, risk contributes to the sense of excitement and adventurousness in travel experience (Cater, 2006; Dickson & Dolnicar, 2004; Quintal, Lee, & Soutar, 2010).”

“There are ≥11 analyses of whitewater rafting and kayaking (Arnould & Price, 1993; Arnould et al., 1999; CarnicelliFilho et al., 2010; Cater, 2006; Cater & Cloke, 2007; Fluker & Turner, 2000; Holyfield, 1999; Holyfield & Fine, 1997; Jones, Hollenhorst, Perna, & Selin, 2000; McGillivray & Frew, 2007;…”

“, 2016) and other adventurous activities (Cater, 2006).”

“As Cohen (2010) asks, how exogenous are tourism disasters, not so much in their origins as in their consequences.”

“Based on this, tourism risk perception was regarded as the subjective judgment made by consumers that leads to negative results for tourism [16,17], which resulted from the asymmetry objectively existent in tourism safety information and of the subjective perception that tourists have [18].”

“This is confirmed by some initial qualitative studies that investigated the role of fear in the adventure tourism context (Cater, 2006; Carnicelli-Filho et. al 2009).”

“Whole industry sectors (such as adventure tourism operators) rely on tourists’ willingness to take risks, although Cater (2006) convincingly argues that it is thrill and not risk that these tourists are seeking, and that operators need to reduce and carefully manage actual risks for this industry…”

“…a multitude of issues about risks involving various destinations (e.g., Fuchs and Reichel 2006; Lepp, Gibson, and Lane 2011), different forms of tourism (e.g., Boksberger, Bieger, and Laesser 2007; Cater 2006), and distinct market segments (e.g., Jonas et al. 2011; Lepp and Gibson 2003).”

“However, this risk paradigm was deemed to be inadequate to capture the adventure tourism experience (Cater, 2006; Kane, 2004).”

“Recent empirical research, however, suggests that adventure tourism is more concerned with sensation seeking than risk (Cater, 2006).”

“Table 1 illustrates the key motives found from 7 (Cater, 2006; Fluker & Turner, 2000; Patterson & Pan, 2007; Pomfret, 2006, 2011; Swarbrooke et al, 2003; Wu & Liang, 2012) of the 15 studies which specifically examine adventure tourists’ motives.”

“Notwithstanding the signifi cant minority of modern tourists who actively seek some form of attenuated risk in the form of adventure travel ( Cater, 2006 ), 5 or what has been described as ‘ terror tours ’ ( Lisle, 2006 ), one could argue that most tourists are in fact risk averse .”

“For some individuals, an optimal level of perceived risk is essential as it forms the exciting part of travel (Cater, 2006; Dickson & Dolnicar, 2004; Quintal et al., 2010).”

“Cater (2006) argued that risk tourists really seek thrills, which hints at alternative connections to tourists’ SWB: perceived risk may be negated by the ‘thrill’ that risk-inclined individuals feel.”

“2003; Cater 2013). In Varley’s continuum, the emphasis is on the inner journey involved in adventurous activities. This point of view has also been highlighted in the introduction on the edited book ‘Adventure Tourism’, in which Varley and Taylor (2013) warn against disciplinary fragmentation and too narrow definition…”

“While the need for safety are of primary importance for tourists who travel to rest and relax (Reisinger and Mavondo, 2005), some tourists purposely seek for an optimal level of risk that forms the excitement part of travel (Cater, 2006; Dickson and Dolnicar, 2004; Quintal et al., 2010).”

“Tourism risk perception is considered as a tourist’s subjective assessment of risk associated with travelling, which may eventually leadto postponement or even cancellation of trave; both having negative outcomes for tourism [60,66].”

“Carter (2006) highlights how tourist operators need to undertake a balancing act, managing risk while maintaining the thrill.”

“According to several researchers, a certain level of risk would often characterise naturebased experiences, in order to achieve flow (Beedie & Hudson, 2003; Cater, 2006; Gyimothy & Mykletun, 2004; Sung, 2004; Weber, 2001).”

“strong parallels to adventure tourism (Buckley, 2012; Cater, 2006) and outdoor adventure education (Brown, 2009; McKenzie, 2000), respectively.”

“There is also a growing body of research which explores the importance of risk, fear and thrills in the context of adventure tourism (e.g. Carnicello-Filho, Schwartz, & Tahara, 2010; Cater, 2006).”

“Most of this research revolves around the influence of risk and/or thrill on these motivations (e.g. Buckley, 2012; Carnicelli-Filho et al., 2010; Cater, 2006).”

“Traditional explanations of adventure sport, including adventure sport tourism, have framed participation motives in terms of risk or thrill-seeking, sensationseeking dispositions (e.g. Cater, 2006; Lyng, 2005; Zuckerman, 2007), or ‘rush’ experiences (Buckley, 2012).”

“(iii) When undertaking research on adventure tourism in Queenstown, New Zealand, performative activities such as bungee jumping seemed to evade easy description and representation (Cater, 2006; Cater & Cloke, 2007; Cloke & Perkins, 1998).”

“, 2003); subsequently much previous work has attempted to evaluate qualitative dimensions of flow (Cater, 2006; 2008).”

“Cater (2006) found that people engaging in adventure tourism activities are motivated by the experience of fear and excitement (perceived risk) rather than by actual risk.”

“In psychological models, Cater (2006) claims that adventure tourists seek fear and thrills with minimal exposure to risk.”

“…tourism which emphasises high risk ‘fear and thrills’ outdoor recreational activities such as zip lining, snowboarding, bungee jumping, rappelling, kite surfing, helicopter skiing and so on (Buckley, 2012; Cater, 2006; Weber, 2001), for which natural environments simply provide an amenable setting.”

“tial to lose something of value (Cater, 2006; King & Beeton, 2006) and was depicted as the”

“A number of adventure recreation studies have used similar qualitative research methods, utilising elements of induction without specifically labelling it as such (e.g., Cater, 2006; Celsi et al., 1993; Kane & Tucker, 2004).”

“Also, participants perceive risks differently from the operators and the responsibility for risk management lies increasingly with the operators (Cater, 2006).”

“Adventure activities involve uncertain outcomes, risk taking, challenge, novelty, excitement, escapism, and exploration (Cater, 2006; Pomfret, 2012; Walle, 1997).”

“(McNamee, 2007, pp. 6–8) In its contemporary form, for a price, the risk can be almost entirely managed-out of adventurous leisure pursuits by paid professionals who choreograph the experiences (Beedie, 2003; Cater, 2006).”

“Risk factors identified by operators related most frequently to adverse and changeable weather conditions and client skills and behavior, and a notable proportion of operators reported that they did not apply important safety management practices.”

“Within the context of adventure tourism, Cater (2006) argues that participants engaging in adventure tourism deliberately seek fear and thrill.”

“As a segment of the overall tourism and recreation market, adventure recreation has grown rapidly in recent years, driven by increased commercialisation (Buckley, 2007), use of adventure imagery in retail advertising (Buckley, 2003), and an increasing desire to experience thrills and risks, especially in leisure pursu…”

“This grouping was necessary to understand the context of participants’ perspectives, as previous studies demonstrated that perceptions of risk can be influenced by participants’ previous experiences (Cater, 2006; Martin & Priest, 1986; Pomfret, 2006).”

“A gradually acquired lifetime skill is no longer essential for participation in some adventure (outdoor recreational) activities, as they have become commercialised, purchasable short-term holiday experiences (Buckley, 2007; Cater, 2006).”

“The factor analysis seems to support the findings of previous studies, suggesting that tourists do not look for risk, but for thrilling ways of experiencing pleasure and fun and learning about themselves (Cater, 2006).”

“Adventure tourists want to be thrilled and perhaps frightened but not actually endangered (Cater 2005).”

“There has been a little research into the motivation and perception of participants in these more extreme derivatives compared to the more mainstream versions, but an important element of alternatives appears to be a desire to experience thrills by overcoming (perceived) risks of personal danger [3,4].”

“Participants play with their fears and the unknown when entering an adventure activity, which ultimately gives them joy, fun or excitement (Cater, 2006).”

“…2001; Buckley, 2004; Fennell, 2008), while the third, considers the motivations of adventure tourists by primarily focusing on the broad notion of ‘risk/thrill’ associated with such participation (Carnicelli-Filho, Schwartz, & Tahara, 2010; Cater, 2006; Ewert & Hollenhorst, 1989; Robinson, 1992).”

“For example, Cater [37] found that the most successful adventure tourism operators in Queenstown, New Zealand, were those that had reduced their actual risk levels.”

“It is important for all of the stakeholders in the area to recognise that successful adventure tourism operations are those that reduce risk levels (Cater 2006), and that this requires an understanding of all the risk factors at play (Bentley et al. 2000).”

“Caving, mountain/ice/rock climbing, trekking are examples of the three most popular hardy tourism activities [14,15].”

“This occurs either by seeking to minimize risk-taking, even in adventure tourism (C. I. Cater, 2006; Weber, 2001), by organizing an excursion or a trip via a registered agency – riding centers, specialist tour operators – or by searching for reliable routes and accommodation.”

“…adventure tourism and sports, product pricing, environment, and risk to name a few (see e.g. Beedie & Hudson, 2003; Bentley & Page, 2008; Buckley, 2006, 2011, 2012; Bonnefoy-Claudet & Ghantous, 2013; Cater, 2006; Ewert & Hollenhorst, 1994; Ewert & Sibthorp, 2014; Xie & Schneider, 2004 and so on).”

“Specifically, two important requirements for enjoying painful activities were mentioned that also align with prior literature (e.g., Augustin and Apter 2016; Cater 2006; Rozin et al. 2013): perceived safety and a balanced level of painful stimuli.”

“Those key determining factors are the financial benefits [38,39], the supplying of infrastructure and knowledge [2], environmental sustainability [40], and community involvement [13].”

“In outdoor recreation, the perception of risk, as well as the actual risk of an activity, needs to be matched with technical competence in order to achieve a peak outcome (Cater, 2006; Priest, 1990).”

“Regarding adventure tourism, Cater (2006) implied that trust is an important factor for operators seeking to get participants to become involved in adventurous activity, and that the information provided by operators should be trustworthy in order to result in the perception of low risk by…”