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Sex differences in anxiety and depression clinical perspectives
Open accessAbstract
Sex differences are prominent in mood and anxiety disorders and may provide a window into mechanisms of onset and maintenance of affective disturbances in both men and women. With the plethora of sex differences in brain structure, function, and stress responsivity, as well as differences in exposure to reproductive hormones, social expectations and experiences, the challenge is to understand which sex differences are relevant to affective illness. This review will focus on clinical aspects of sex differences in affective disorders including the emergence of sex differences across developmental stages and the impact of reproductive events. Biological, cultural, and experiential factors that may underlie sex differences in the phenomenology of mood and anxiety disorders are discussed.
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“This result is consistent with previous studies showing that women experience anxiety more and are twice more likely to develop anxiety disorders over their lifetime than men [42].”
From Adaptive function and correlates of anxiety during a pandemic (2021) · cites this paper as [42]
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“with women at an increased risk (96, 97)”
From Higher Circulating Cortisol in the Follicular vs. Luteal Phase of the Menstrual Cycle: A Meta-Analysis (2020) · cites this paper as [96]
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“Other studies do not distinguish between gender and sex differences, 23 which may lead to ambiguity in the analysis.”
From Factors associated with gender and sex differences in anxiety prevalence and comorbidity: A systematic review (2022) · cites this paper as [23]
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“Notably, IDs are highly comorbid [17–19] with females [20–23] and young people (i.e. <65 years) [8, 10, 17–19, 22, 24–29] disproportionately affected.”
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“These findings are consistent with previous studies that females have shown higher rates of depressive symptoms (Kandel and Davies, 1982), generalized anxiety disorder (Altemus et al., 2014; Kessler et al., 1994), and suicidal ideation (Borges et al., 2006; Crosby et al., 1999).”
From Time in treatment: Examining mental illness trajectories across inpatient psychiatric treatment (2020) · cites this paper as Altemus et al., 2014
In the citing paper
“and surprising given that women are more susceptible to anxiety and depressive disorders than men (53).”
From Perineuronal nets, inhibitory interneurons and anxiety-related ventral hippocampal neuronal oscillations are altered by early life adversity (2019) · cites this paper as [53]
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Citations
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Luo, P. X., Manning, C., Fass, J. N., Williams, A. V., Hao, R., Campi, K. L., & Trainor, B. C. (2020) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113084 · Cited by 24
Regnoli, G. M., Tiano, G., & Rosa, B. D. (2024) · European Journal of Investigation in Health Psychology and Education · doi:10.3390/ejihpe14060121 · Cited by 29
“Overall, the highlighted limitations do not allow the results obtained to be generalized to the entire population of young Italian adults, so we suggest that prospective research consider increasing the representativeness of the sample in the future.”
BackgroundPina, M. M., Pati, D., Hwa, L. S., Wu, S. Y., Mahoney, A. A., Omenyi, C. G., Navarro, M., & Kash, T. L. (2019) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.107831 · Cited by 25
“These findings are interesting and suggest a possible mechanism for further investigation, especially given the higher incidence of anxiety and depression in women [53] and the insula’s role in these affective states [4, 54].”
BackgroundThe Metabolomic Underpinnings of Symptom Burden in Patients With Multiple Chronic Conditions
Corwin, E. J., Brewster, G. S., Dunbar, S. B., Wells, J., Hertzberg, V., Holstad, M. M., Song, M., & Jones, D. P. (2020) · Biological Research For Nursing · doi:10.1177/1099800420958196 · Cited by 25
“Women also are more prone to depressive symptoms than men (Slavich & Sacher, 2019) across multiple stages of the life course (Altemus et al., 2014; Mattina et al., 2019) and demonstrate differences in their metabolic profiles compared to males, including metabolites and metabolic pathways related…”
BackgroundAmu, H., Seidu, A.-A., Agbemavi, W., Owusu, B. A., Ahinkorah, B. O., Ameyaw, E. K., & Kissah-Korsah, K. (2020) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-020-00344-4 · Cited by 24
Sex as a Biological Variable in Preclinical Modeling of Blast-Related Traumatic Brain Injury
McCabe, J. T., & Tucker, L. B. (2020) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.541050 · Cited by 24
“There are clear sex differences in non-TBI civilian populations in the lifetime susceptibility to depression and anxiety disorders (113, 114), as well as evidence from the civilian literature that women may be more susceptible to psychiatric disorders following mTBI [e.”
BackgroundTrofimova, O., Loued‐Khenissi, L., Domenicantonio, G. D., Lutti, A., Kliegel, M., Stringhini, S., Marques-Vidal, P. M., Vollenweider, P., Waeber, G., Preisig, M., et al. (2021) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2021.02.002 · Cited by 23
Kassir, G., Hayek, S. E., Zalzale, H., Orsolini, L., & Bizri, M. (2021) · International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice · doi:10.1080/13651501.2021.1900872 · Cited by 25
“Multiple studies have shown that females are more likely to be psychologically affected by pandemics than males (Altemus et al. 2014; Gonz alezSanguino et al. 2020; Zhang and Ma 2020).”
BackgroundShupe, E. A., & Clinton, S. M. (2021) · Developmental Psychobiology · doi:10.1002/dev.22144 · Cited by 24
Nazir, M. A., Almulhim, K. S., AlDaamah, Z., Bubshait, S., Sallout, M., Alghamdi, S., & AlHumaid, J. (2021) · Patient Preference and Adherence · doi:10.2147/ppa.s319193 · Cited by 24
Mitochondria as the target for disease related hormonal dysregulation
Shaw, G. A. (2021) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100350 · Cited by 24
“, 2013), anxiety (Altemus et al., 2014), and depression (Bekhbat and Neigh, 2018; Fan et al.”
BackgroundAnxiety and Depression in Newly Diagnosed Epilepsy: A Matter of Psychological History?
Forthoffer, N., Tarrada, A., Brissart, H., Maillard, L. G., & Hingray, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2021.744377 · Cited by 27
“This gender difference has been reported in the general population in anxiety and depressive disorders (31, 32) but not in PWE (33).”
BackgroundLindsay, J. A. B., McGowan, N. M., King, N., Rivera, D., Li, M., Byun, J., Cunningham, S., Saunders, K., & Duffy, A. C. (2022) · BJPsych Open · doi:10.1192/bjo.2022.48 · Cited by 29
Stewart, T. M., Fry, D., McAra, L., Hamilton, S., King, A., Laurie, M., & McCluskey, G. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0266818 · Cited by 24
“However, unlike previous literature [8, 38], we did not find females to be more at risk of depression or anxiety, although females were almost three times more likely to report elevated avoidance and intrusive thoughts about Covid-19.”
An, Y.-C., Liang, C., Lee, J., Lee, M., Chen, S., Tsai, C., Lin, G., Lin, Y., & Yang, F. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00598 · Cited by 26
“anxiety disorders compared to men (48, 49).”
Yang, X., Fan, C., Liu, Q., Lian, S.-L., Cao, M., & Zhou, Z. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00408-5 · Cited by 24
Knight, E. L., Majd, M., Graham‐Engeland, J. E., Smyth, J. M., Sliwinski, M. J., & Engeland, C. G. (2020) · Brain Behavior & Immunity - Health · doi:10.1016/j.bbih.2019.100013 · Cited by 24
“For example, estrogen levels at menarche are thought to relate to depression in adolescent women (Altemus et al., 2014) and testosterone in older men has been associatedwith lower depressive symptoms (Booth et al., 1999).”
BackgroundPower, C. J., Fox, J. L., Elliott-Sale, K. J., Bender, A. M., Dalbo, V. J., & Scanlan, A. T. (2023) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-023-01963-5 · Cited by 24
“Conversely, insomnia symptoms such as difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep can create anxiety surrounding sleep and potentially lead to the development of a depressive disorder [74–77].”
Luo, Y., Jiang, N., Zhang, Y., Zhao, Y., Chen, F., Li, X., Qiang, M., Zeng, G., He, Q., Liu, X., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2025.1556744 · Cited by 23
Blunted Flanker P300 Demonstrates Specificity to Depressive Symptoms in Females during Adolescence
Santopetro, N. J., Kallen, A. M., Threadgill, A. H., Amir, N., & Hajcak, G. (2021) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-021-00876-z · Cited by 23
“, 2016), and have been theorized to affect depressive symptoms in adolescence (Albert, 2015; Altemus et al., 2014).”
BackgroundDepresi, Kecemasan, dan Stres Remaja selama Pandemi Covid-19.
Pertiwi, S. T., Moeliono, M. F., & Kendhawati, L. (2021) · JURNAL Al-AZHAR INDONESIA SERI HUMANIORA · doi:10.36722/sh.v6i2.497 · Cited by 30
Presto, P., Ji, G., Junell, R., Griffin, Z., & Neugebauer, V. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11101339 · Cited by 23
Labrenz, F., Woud, M., Elsenbruch, S., & Icenhour, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.841734 · Cited by 22
“Likewise, healthy women demonstrate longer avoidance duration and continue avoidant behavior during extinction (147), well in line with clinical data showing a higher female prevalence for anxiety disorders (148, 149), chronic pain (150), and IBS (151).”
ResultNg, C. H., Xiao, J., Chew, N., Chin, Y. H., Chan, K. E., Quek, J., Lim, W. H., Tan, D. J. H., Loke, R. W. K., Tan, C., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2022.985803 · Cited by 25
“The higher risk for depression in females is corroborated by previous literature which highlighted the differences in hormonal changes between males and females (39, 40).”
ResultMogos, M. F., Salemi, J. L., Phillips, S. A., & Piano, M. R. (2019) · Alcohol and Alcoholism · doi:10.1093/alcalc/agz050 · Cited by 23
Ellis, S. N., & Honeycutt, J. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2021.741454 · Cited by 24
Sex differences in cerebellar mechanisms involved in pain-related safety learning
Labrenz, F., Icenhour, A., Thürling, M., Schlamann, M. U., Forsting, M., Timmann, D., & Elsenbruch, S. (2015) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2015.05.006 · Cited by 22
Content Moderator Mental Health, Secondary Trauma, and Well-being: A Cross-Sectional Study
Spence, R., Bifulco, A., Bradbury, P., Martellozzo, E., & DeMarco, J. (2024) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2023.0298 · Cited by 29
“38,39 Duration of role was not associated with psychological distress, secondary trauma, or well-being.”
Sayfullaeva, J., McLoughlin, J., & Kwakowsky, A. (2024) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-240899 · Cited by 26
“However, the brain systems, biological mechanisms, and physiological factors that mediate the psychiatric effects of these reproductive events are not well understood [119].”
Maternal major depression and synchrony of facial affect during mother-child interactions.
Kudinova, A. Y., Woody, M. L., James, K. M., Burkhouse, K. L., Feurer, C., Foster, C. E., & Gibb, B. E. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000411 · Cited by 25
La socialización diferencial emocional de género como factor predictor del carácter
Ovejas, I. S. (2020) · iQual Revista de Género e Igualdad · doi:10.6018/iqual.369611 · Cited by 22
Sex effects on cortical morphological networks in healthy young adults
Ge, R., Liu, X., Long, D., Frangou, S., & Vila‐Rodriguez, F. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.117945 · Cited by 20
Lockdown dreams: Dream content and emotions during the COVID-19 pandemic in an italian sample.
Giovanardi, G., Bincoletto, A. F., Baiocco, R., Ferrari, M., Gentile, D., Siri, M., Tanzilli, A., & Lingiardi, V. (2021) · Psychoanalytic Psychology · doi:10.1037/pap0000385 · Cited by 24
Sex effects in the interaction of acute stress and pain perception
Geva, N., Golan, S., Pinchas, L., & Defrin, R. (2022) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002743 · Cited by 22
Anxiety and Associated Stressors Among Farm Women in England and Wales
Wheeler, R., & Lobley, M. (2023) · Journal of Agromedicine · doi:10.1080/1059924x.2023.2200421 · Cited by 22
Scariot, R., Tomaz, C. O., Calixto, R. D., Gerber, J. T., Petinati, M. F. P., Cavalcante, R. C., Küchler, É. C., & da Costa, D. J. (2019) · Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.jcms.2019.05.003 · Cited by 23
Brexanolone for the treatment of patients with postpartum depression
Morrison, K. E., Cole, A. B., Thompson, S. M., & Bale, T. L. (2019) · Drugs of today · doi:10.1358/dot.2019.55.9.3040864 · Cited by 23
“Women are twice as likely as men to suffer from mood disorders such as major depressive disorder (3).”
BackgroundZhang, H., Lu, T., Feng, Y., Sun, X. L., Xu, Y., Zhou, K., Sun, R., Wang, Y., Wang, X., & Chen, M. (2019) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136130 · Cited by 22
Aspectos básicos sobre el concepto y puesta en práctica de la coeducación emocional
Ovejas, I. S. (2020) · Foro de Educación · doi:10.14516/fde.682 · Cited by 22
Quiton, R. L., Leibel, D. K., Boyd, E. L., Waldstein, S. R., Evans, M. K., & Zonderman, A. B. (2020) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001793 · Cited by 25
“due to (1) its complex, bidirectional relationship with pain and (2) literature documenting sociodemographic differences in depression.(2,9,90) Although the latter may indicate that depression”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Altemus, M., Sarvaiya, N., & Neill Epperson, C.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- Northwell Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Altemus, Margaret
- ORCID
- Altemus, Margaret
- Venue
- Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2014-08
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 320-330
- ISSN
- 0091-3022 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4890708
- OpenAlex
- W2049163404
- Cited by
- 1,413
- References
- 176
- Citations by year
- 2026: 113 · 2025: 181 · 2024: 177 · 2023: 174 · 2022: 178 · 2021: 194 · 2020: 141 · 2019: 87 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 38 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 3
- FWCI
- 5.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health and NIH Office of Research on Women’s Health (P50 MH099910)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (K24 DA03031)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Sex and Gender in Healthcare
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Maternal Mental Health During Pregnancy and Postpartum
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- sex differences, anxiety disorders, depression, mood disorders, reproductive hormones, reproductive events, stress responsivity, social expectations
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Anxiety, Anxiety Disorders, Depression, Humans, Sex Characteristics, Stress, Psychological
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