The DOI matches its Crossref record; 17 of the 18 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Treatment of acrophobia in virtual reality: The role of immersion and presence
Abstract
In this study the effects of virtual reality exposure therapy (VRET) were investigated in patients with acrophobia. Feelings of presence in VRET were systematically varied by using either a head-mounted display (HMD) (low presence) or a computer automatic virtual environment (CAVE) (high presence). VRET in general was found to be more effective than no treatment. No differences were found in effectiveness between VRET using an HMD or CAVE. Results were maintained at 6 months follow-up. Results of VRET were comparable with those of exposure in vivo (Cyberpsychology and Behavior 4 (2001) 335). In treatment completers no relationship was found between presence and anxiety. Early drop-outs experienced less acrophobic complaints and psychopathology in general at pre-test. They also experienced less presence and anxiety in the virtual environment used in session one as compared to patients that completed VRET.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“based on evidence which reported attrition levels between 16.9% and 26.0%60 and reporting dropout rates of up to 41.4%.61”
In the citing paper
“However, studies show unclear relationships between presence and emotions. Some studies found significant positive correlations, [56,57], some did not [54,58,59], and some even found negative correlations [60,61].”
From Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review (2017) · cites this paper as [54]
In the citing paper
“In fact, the authors found that participants who dropped out early experienced less presence and did not feel anxiety in the virtual environment, compared to completer patients.”
From Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review (2017) · cites this paper as [54]
In the citing paper
“Krijn et al. [54] manipulated presence using a head-mounted display (HMD) (low presence) or a computerized automatic virtual environment (CAVE) (high presence), finding no differences between the two conditions in the efficacy of VRET for acrophobia.”
From Recent Progress in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Phobias: A Systematic Review (2017) · cites this paper as [54]
In the citing paper
“a 2004 study on acrophobia exposure experimentally assigned participants to experiencing VR exposure with either a low-presence HMD or a high-presence CAVE, and despite finding the expected difference in presence scores, the groups did not differ on outcomes (although it should be noted that this contrast was low powered) (Krijn et al. 2004).”
From Better, Virtually: the Past, Present, and Future of Virtual Reality Cognitive Behavior Therapy (2021) · cites this paper as Krijn et al. 2004
In the citing paper
“However, efforts to increase the sense of presence have not always led to higher levels of anxiety [25].”
From A Meta-Analysis on the Relationship between Self-Reported Presence and Anxiety in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders (2014) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“Existing published studies show mixed results. While some studies have found significant positive correlations between self-reported presence and anxiety in VRET [23], [24], some have not [25], [26]. Some studies even found negative correlations between presence and anxiety [27], [28].”
From A Meta-Analysis on the Relationship between Self-Reported Presence and Anxiety in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders (2014) · cites this paper as [25]
In the citing paper
“Additionally, as the lack of emotional response has been reported as a potential cause for dropouts in VRET [25], [87], and the use of advanced technology increases the correlation between presence and anxiety, we would expect lower amount of dropouts in VRET by using advanced technology.”
From A Meta-Analysis on the Relationship between Self-Reported Presence and Anxiety in Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy for Anxiety Disorders (2014) · cites this paper as [25]
Citations
Cites
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,845
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Siegel, L. J., & Fletcher‐Janzen, E. (2008) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470373699.speced0655 · Cited by 8,467
Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis I Disorders
Spitzer, R. L., First, M. B., & Gibbon, M. (1997) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 3,582
The Experience of Presence: Factor Analytic Insights
Schubert, T., Friedmann, F., & Regenbrecht, H. (2001) · Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments · doi:10.1162/105474601300343603 · Cited by 2,303
Lr, D., & Derogatis, L. R. (1983) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,027
Effectiveness of computer-generated (virtual reality) graded exposure in the treatment of acrophobia
(1995) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.152.4.626 · Cited by 694
A controlled study of virtual reality exposure therapy for the fear of flying.
Rothbaum, B. O., Hodges, L., Smith, S., Lee, J. H., & Price, L. (2000) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.68.6.1020 · Cited by 501
Virtual reality treatment versus exposure in vivo: a comparative evaluation in acrophobia
Emmelkamp, P. M. G., Krijn, M., Hulsbosch, A. M., de Vries, S., Schuemie, M. J., & van der Mast, C. A. P. G. (2002) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00023-7 · Cited by 475
Self-citationVirtual Reality Treatment in Acrophobia: A Comparison with Exposure in Vivo
Emmelkamp, P. M. G., Bruynzeel, M., Drost, L., & van der Mast, C. P. A. G. (2001) · CyberPsychology & Behavior · doi:10.1089/109493101300210222 · Cited by 241
Self-citationEmbodied Presence in Virtual Environments
Schubert, T. W., Friedmann, F., & Regenbrecht, H. T. (1999) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4471-0563-3_30 · Cited by 238
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Van der Ploeg, 1980, Validity of the Zelf-Beoordelings-Vragenlijst (A Dutch version of the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory), Nederlands Tijdschrift voor de Psychologie en haar Grensgebieden, 35, 243
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–319 of 319
Manasse, S. M., Trainor, C. M., Payne‐Reichert, A., Abber, S. R., Lampe, E. W., Gillikin, L. M., Juarascio, A. S., & Forman, E. M. (2022) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-1909619/v1
(2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822962-0.00025-0
Virtual Reality in treatment and rehabilitation
Preim, B., Raidou, R. G., Smit, N. N., & Lawonn, K. (2023) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-822962-0.00024-9
İlhan, Y., & Avcil, C. (2023) · Mutluluk ve İyi Oluş Dergisi · doi:10.32739/usmut.2023.9.15.96
A Virtual Reality Based Therapeutic Approach for Stuttering Intervention
Cecil, J., Tetnowski, J. A., & Tentu, S. K. (2024) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-61047-9_12
Finger Tapping as a Behavioral Indicator of Presence in VR
Hinkle, S., Soares, S., & Bohil, C. J. (2024) · PRESENCE Virtual and Augmented Reality · doi:10.1162/pres_a_00438
Pitch Me One More Time: Using Virtual Reality to Overcome Stage Fright in Pitching
Vibeto, H. A., Mana, S. V., & Taheri, M. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-76902-3_20
Walking It Off: Habituation of Gait at Virtual High Elevation SettingsPreprint
Poretti, K., Ellmers, T. J., Enfield, J., Rhea, C. K., & Raffegeau, T. E. (2025) · Research Square · doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-6549725/v1
Melis, F., Sánchez, R., González, L. M., Pellegrini, P., Fuentes, J. A., & Nieto, R. R. (2025) · Psychiatry International · doi:10.3390/psychiatryint6020058
VR-Based Exposure Therapy for Acrophobia: Effects of Visual Realism and Interactivity
Pan, G., & Leong, W. Y. (2025) · INTI JOURNAL. · doi:10.61453/intij.202517
Polo, K. G. L., Mancheno, J. M. O., & Palacios, M. E. R. (2025) · Religación · doi:10.46652/rgn.v11i49.1591
Understanding immersive technologies: A comparison of theoretical lensesPreprint
Balapour, A. (2026) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.6174713
Presence Is Reality: Rethinking Virtual and Real-World Consciousness
Singleton, O., & Fotopoulou, A. (2026) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916251414030 · Cited by 2
“…2005), PTSD (Difede & Cukor, 2007), fear of flying (Rothbaum et al., 2006), fear of spiders (Carlin et al., 1997; Garcia-Palacios et al., 2002), fear of heights (Krijn et al., 2004), and psychosis (Rus-Calafell et al., 2018)— substituting real-life exposure for a more manageable virtual exposure.”
Reminiac-Houssais, M.-S. (2020) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/8467861cz8829z4e45zae3az4cc36eeb8755
Axberg, L., Edwards, S., Bernhardsson, J., Zetterlund, K., Rosén, J., Grönvall, H., Tabrizi, F. F., Leiler, A., & Åhs, F. (2026) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2026.109364
Walking it off: habituation of gait at virtual high elevation
Poretti, K., Ellmers, T. J., Rhea, C. K., & Raffegeau, T. E. (2026) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2026.1949841
Shifting Paradigms in Clinical Psychology
Dimeff, L. A., Paves, A. P., Skutch, J. M., & Woodcock, E. A. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199328710.013.031
Metadata
- Authors
- Krijn, M., Emmelkamp, P. M. G., Biemond, R., de Wilde de Ligny, C., Schuemie, M. J., & van der Mast, C. A. P. G.
- Affiliations
- University of Amsterdam (NL)
- Delft University of Technology (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Krijn, Merel
- Venue
- Behaviour Research and Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2004-02
- Volume
- 42
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 229-239
- ISSN
- 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2101484768
- Cited by
- 320
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 30 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 25 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 11 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 9.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Digital Mental Health Interventions
- Keywords
- acrophobia, virtual reality exposure therapy, presence, immersion, head-mounted displays, caves, treatment outcomes, treatment discontinuation, anxiety, phobia treatment
- MeSH terms
- Analysis of Variance, Computer Simulation, Conditioning, Psychological, Female, Humans, Implosive Therapy, Male, Middle Aged, Phobic Disorders, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Therapy, Computer-Assisted, Treatment Outcome
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
