Common childhood fears and their origins
Abstract
The present study examined rank orders and characteristics of childhood fears. A 'free option' approach ('What do you fear most?') deviated markedly from the fear rank order based on the Fear Survey Schedule for Children. A second aim of the study was to investigate the origins of prevalent childhood fears. In contrast to the results of Ollendick and King (1991, Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29, 117-123), conditioning was found to be the most commonly reported pathway related to exacerbation and onset of fears. Finally, special attention was given to the top intense fear in children, namely fear of spiders. Children who reported 'none', 'some' or 'a lot' of spider fear were compared with each other in terms of pathways. No differences between the three groups were found with respect to the frequency of modeling and information experiences. However, high fearful children more often reported conditioning experiences than low or moderate fearful children.
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The Pathways to Fear Survey is a valuable tool in examining the origins of children's fears.
“increasing evidence suggests that the Pathways to Fear Survey (Doogan & Thomas, 1992; King et al., 1997; Muris et al., 1997; Ollendick & King, 1991) is a valuable tool in examining the origins of children ' s fears”
From Specific Phobia in Young Children: Associations between the Origins of Fear and Clinical Expression of Phobia Symptoms. (2025) · cites this paper as Muris et al., 1997
Cites
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“This conclusion is, of course, difficult to reconcile with the non-associative view of intense fears and phobias (Menzies & Clarke, 1995; see, for a more elaborated critique of the non-associative account, Merckelbach, De Jong, Muris & Van den Hout, 1996 ).”
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Anxiety Disorders During Childhood and Adolescence: Origins and Treatment
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“It is worthy of note that the fear rank order obtained by the free option method was highly similar to that found in other studies employing this method (Muris et al., 1997, 1998).”
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“Muris et al. (1996), for example, found that trait anxiety in children was positively associated with trait anxiety of both the mother and father and that children of mothers who tended to express their fears often had the highest FSSC scores.”
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“Interestingly, in two of these studies (Muris et al. 1997; Muris et al. 2008a), children were also explicitly asked to what extent threat information (and other learning) experiences had actually played a role in the exacerbation (‘‘Did the event cause you to become more fearful?’’) or onset (‘‘Did your fear begin wit…”
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Self-citationEtiology of childhood phobias: current status of Rachman’s three pathways theory
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Evidence for retarded extinction of aversive learning in anxious children
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Itsy Bitsy Spider…: Infants React with Increased Arousal to Spiders and Snakes
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“…and snakes have a prevalence rate of 1–5 percent (Fredrikson et al., 1996), a strong dislike of these animals is reported by more than a third of the child population (Muris et al., 1997) and the adult population (Davey, 1991), the latter from which even entomologists are not exempt (Vetter, 2013).”
Fear of the beast: a prospective study on the effects of negative information on childhood fear
Muris, P., Bodden, D. H. M., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., Ollendick, T. H., & King, N. J. (2003) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00137-1 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Muris et al. / Behaviour Research and Therapy 41 (2003) 195–208”
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Prokop, P., Tolarovičová, A., Camerik, A. M., & Peterková, V. (2009) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500690903253908 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Secondly, the reputation of spiders among humans is worse than that of many other animals (Davey, 1994; Kirkpatrick, 1984; Muris et al., 1997).”
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“Interestingly, in the study of Muris et al. (1997), 33% of the children did not know what caused their fear, suggesting that it may be difficult if not impossible to attribute the etiology of personal fears to one of three pathways.”
BackgroundThe etiology of specific fears and phobias in children: a critique of the non-associative account
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., de Jong, P. J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2002) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(01)00051-1 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“These studies show that a signifi cant number of spider and dog phobic children report associative onset experiences that are con fi rmed by their parents (e.g., Kheriaty, Kleinknecht, & Hyman, 1999; Merckelbach, Muris, & Schouten, 1996; Merckelbach & Muris, 1997; Muris, Merckelbach, & Collaris, 1997 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe structure of specific phobia symptoms among children and adolescents
Muris, P., Schmidt, H. G., & Merckelbach, H. L. G. J. (1999) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00201-0 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
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“The interview comprised a structured format, with questions adapted from Muris, Merckelbach, and Collaris (1997) and Muris et al. (2001).”
MethodSelf-citationSayfan, L., & Lagattuta, K. H. (2008) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01161.x · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“During the preschool years, children also begin to fear imaginary and supernatural creatures, including witches, monsters, and ghosts, with these fears of the imaginary and supernatural typically diminishing substantially by school age (Muris et al., 1997; Muris & Merckelbach, 2000).”
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Self-citationFarrell, L. J., Miyamoto, T., Donovan, C. L., Waters, A. M., Krisch, K. A., & Ollendick, T. H. (2020) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2020.06.003 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
How serious are common childhood fears? II. The parent's point of view
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Self-citationNeumann, D. L., Waters, A. M., Westbury, H. R., & Henry, J. (2008) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.08.005 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Neumann and Waters (2006) also observed a decline in TIRs across acquisition in a sample of adults.”
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“supported by several retrospective studies in which observation and instruction were identified as common sources of fear in children [2–5].”
Fears and Fearfulness in South-African Children
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Self-citationThe Assessment of Normal Fear in Children and Adolescents
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“Looking only at the most commonly reported fears, Muris, Merckelbach, and Collaris (1997) asked children, on an individual basis, "What do you fear most?".”
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“The questionnaire first required students to complete two open-ended questions (Muris et al., 1997) and list four animals that they feared and four”
BackgroundInfluentialContemporary Fears of Children and Adolescents: Coping and Resiliency in the 21st Century
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What is the Revised Fear Survey Schedule for Children measuring?
Muris, P., Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., Ollendick, T. H., King, N. J., Meesters, C. M. G., & van Kessel, C. (2002) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(02)00007-4 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“In contrast, when using the FSSC-R, children clearly scored highest on fears found on the danger and death factor (see for similar results Lane & Gullone, 1999; Muris, Merckelbach, & Collaris, 1997a ).”
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Studying Fears in Young Children
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“Elbedour et al., 1997; King et al., 1994; Lentz, 1985a; Muris et al., 1997a, 1997b ), we found that fears of animals are very common among children.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialEmpirical fear profiles among American youth
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“However, other methods of assessing fears among youth typically fail to find the death and danger theme to be most salient (Lane & Gullone, 1999; Muris et al., 1997).”
MethodMuris, P., Huijding, J., Mayer, B., Leemreis, W. H., Passchier, S., & Bouwmeester, S. (2009) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410902976379 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Most of the evidence is based on studies that examined children's subjective reports to the question whether negative information had played a role in the onset or exacerbation of their main fear or phobia (eg, Muris, Merckelbach, & Collaris, 1997 ; Ollendick & King, 1991 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citationOrigins of common fears in South African children
Muris, P., du Plessis, M., & Loxton, H. (2008) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.03.004 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationThe“normal” development of fear
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“[11], children were first asked to identify their main object of fear, after which they had to indicate to what extent modeling and threat information transmission had played a role in the origins of that fear.”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe etiology of childhood spider phobia
Merckelbach, H. L. G. J., & Muris, P. (1997) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/s0005-7967(97)00054-5 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationFacing Your Fear in Immersive Virtual Reality: Avoidance Behavior in Specific Phobia
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“Around one third of the population has a strong dislike of spiders (Davey, 1991; Muris et al., 1997) with females being more affected than males, at rates of 5:1 (Fredrikson et al., 1996).”
BackgroundWorry, General Self-Efficacy and School Achievement: An Exploratory Study With Chinese Adolescents
Tang, N. Y. Y., & Westwood, P. S. (2007) · Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling · doi:10.1375/ajgc.17.1.68 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…1985; MacMullin & Odeh, 1999); but other significant worries arising during childhood and adolescence are related to issues that arise within the context of school (Christie Australian Journal of Guidance & Counselling Volume 17 Number 1 2007▲ & MacMullin, 1998; Muris et al., 1997; Orton, 1982).”
BackgroundChanges in facial electromyographic activity in spider-phobic girls after psychotherapy
Leutgeb, V., & Schienle, A. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.02.017 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“Moreover, spiders are known to possess highly fear-inducing properties in children (Muris et al., 1997).”
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The living environment and children's fears following the Indonesian tsunami
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“In past studies, the fear of animals and the fear of death and danger, which would include environmental hazards such as the tsunami, were the most prevalent among children and adolescents (Gullone and King, 1992; Muris, Merckelback, and Collaris, 1997; Muris et al., 2000).”
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Nighttime Fears and Fantasy–Reality Differentiation in Preschool Children
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“[15] concluded that modeling is a crucial etiological factor regarding children’s general fear level, but when it comes to specific fears, conditioning becomes the main factor.”
BackgroundRemmerswaal, D., Muris, P., & Huijding, J. (2013) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2013.01.001 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Self-citationChild dental fear in low-income and non-low-income families: A school-based survey study
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Examining Children's Fears in the Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina
Burnham, J. J., Hooper, L. M., Edwards, E. E., Tippey, J. M., McRaney, A., Morrison, M. A., Underwood, J. W., & Woodroof, E. (2008) · Journal of Psychological Trauma · doi:10.1080/19322880802492229 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“Based on suggestions from the literature ( Gullone, 1999 ; Lane & Gullone, 1999 ; McCathie & Spence, 1991 ; Muris, Merckelbach, & Collaris, 1997 ; Muris, Merckelbach, Meesters, & Van Lier, 1997 ), the open-ended question preceded the FSSC–AM for the Hurricane Katrina study to keep fear bias at a minimum.”
MethodMonsters in the dark and other scary things: preschoolers' self-reports
Loxton, H. (2009) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.2989/jcamh.2009.21.1.7.809 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“The results of the open question method support this argument (Muris et al. 1997; Burkhardt 2002).”
MethodResultFather's and mother's beliefs about children's anxiety
Beato, A. F., Barros, L., & Pereira, A. I. (2018) · Child Care Health and Development · doi:10.1111/cch.12603 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The origins of mental contamination
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Spider Fear Versus Scorpion Fear in Undergraduate Students at Five American Universities
Vetter, R. S., Draney, M. L., Brown, C. A., Trumble, J. T., Gouge, D. H., Hinkle, N. C., & Pace-Schott, E. F. (2018) · American Entomologist · doi:10.1093/ae/tmy030 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
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Assessment instruments of darkness phobia in children and adolescents: A descriptive review
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An empirical taxonomy of youths' fears: Cluster analysis of the American fear survey schedule
Burnham, J. J., Schaefer, B. A., & Giesen, J. (2006) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.20178 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Children as change agents in reducing risks of disasters
Rashid, M., Ronan, K. R., & Towers, B. (2016) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315671970-26 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Children's Fears: A Survey of Italian Children Ages 6 to 10 Years
Salcuni, S., Riso, D. D., Mazzeschi, C., & Lis, A. (2009) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.104.3.971-988 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
An Experimental Study of Spider-Related Covariation Bias in 8- to 13-Year-Old Children
Muris, P., de Jong, P. J., Meesters, C. M. G., Waterreus, B., & vanLubeck, J. (2005) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-004-6457-y · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationCultural Effects on the Expression of Some Fears by Chinese and British Female Students
Higgins, L. (2004) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.3200/gntp.165.1.37-50 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in a One-Session Treatment for a Preschooler With Specific Phobias
Kershaw, H., Farrell, L. J., Donovan, C. L., & Ollendick, T. H. (2017) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.31.1.7 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“, 2009), and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (Muris et al., 1997; Muris, Merckelbach, Holdrinet, & Sijsenaar, 1998).”
Serim-Yıldız, B., & Erdur‐Baker, Ö. (2013) · The Journal of Genetic Psychology · doi:10.1080/00221325.2012.678420 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Take a Public Speaking Course and Conquer the Fear
Dwyer, K. K., & Davidson, M. M. (2021) · Journal of Education and Educational Development · doi:10.22555/joeed.v8i2.456 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Klassifikation, Epidemiologie und diagnostisches Vorgehen
Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Reiss, B. (2004) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-18499-4_5 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
‘It's the sight not the bite’: A model and reinterpretation of visually-based developmental fears
Berger, M. (2010) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.06.002 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Michalčáková, R. N., Lacinová, L., Kyjonková, H., Bouša, O., & Jelínek, M. (2013) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/0272431613485820 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“This is in line with results reported by Muris, Merckelbach, and Collaris (1997) and Muris, Merckelbach, Meesters et al. (1997).”
ResultInvestigating Childhood Fears During Preschool Period in Terms of Child, Mother and Teacher Opinions
Önder, A., Küsmüs, G. İ., & Cengiz, O. (2018) · European Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.12973/eu-jer.7.4.973 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The origins of fears in a selected group of middle childhood South African children
du Plessis, M. (2006) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Adams, T. G., Sawchuk, C. N., Cisler, J. M., Lohr, J. M., & Olatunji, B. O. (2014) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118775349.ch18 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Child PTSD Symptom Scale in Abused Children: Criteria for Diagnosis
Espinosa, R., Concepion, L. S., de Castro, M. V., Martínez, A. G., Lopez, J. A., Cervera, I. P. R., Fernandez, V., & Alcántara, M. V. (2018) · Journal of Mental Disorders and Treatment · doi:10.4172/2471-271x.1000154 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“To obtain evidence of concurrent validity, a previous study was performed with some of the abused minors who make up this research (N=50), who were given the following scales: the Children's Impact of Traumatic Events scale (CITES-R) (SCARED-R) [57] and the Impact of Event Scale (IES) and CPSS.”
Threat cues in metal’s visual code
Watier, N. N. (2022) · Metal Music Studies · doi:10.1386/mms_00075_1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Kandemir-Ozdinc, N., & Erdur‐Baker, Ö. (2013) · Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.565 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Lasten TV-ohjelmiin liittyvät pelot, painajaisunet ja pelonhallinta
Korhonen, P. (2008) · Tampere University Institutional Repository (Tampere University) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Lord, J. A. (2009) · Unisa Institutional Repository (University of South Africa) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Children`s Fears and Coping Strategies: a Comparative Perspective
Taimalu, M. (2007) · DSpace repository (University of Tartu) · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Classification of Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Essau, C. A., Olaya, B., & Ollendick, T. H. (2012) · doi:10.1002/9781118315088.ch1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
How children make sense of fear of the dark: a qualitative study of Russian preschoolers
McCready, M., Wiseman, M., Armstrong, J., & Witherington, D. C. (2024) · Early Child Development and Care · doi:10.1080/03004430.2024.2404009 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“This aligns well with the idea that the main source of nighttime fears derives from TV and children ’ s books (Muris, Merckelbach, & Collaris, 1997, 2001) but deviates signi fi cantly from the only major study of Russian children ’ s fears conducted by Zaharov (2000), in which creatures from Russian…”
The Common Fears and Their Origins Among Turkish Children and Adolescents
Serim-Yıldız, B., Erdur‐Baker, Ö., & Bugay, A. (2013) · Behaviour Change · doi:10.1017/bec.2013.18 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The common fears and their origins were measured via questions based on a previous study by Muris et al. (1997).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAge Differences in Information Processing Biases in Spider Fear
Smith-Janik, S. B., Green, J. S., & Teachman, B. A. (2013) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2013.6.4.401 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Spiders, bullies, monsters or terrorists: What scares Australian children?
Gilmore, L., & Campbell, M. A. (2007) · Children Australia · doi:10.1017/s1035077200011640 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Children's fears 2–13 months after sibling NICU/PICU/emergency department death
Roche, R. M., Brooten, D. A., & Youngblut, J. M. (2019) · Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners · doi:10.1097/jxx.0000000000000193 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Gender differences about fears have been reported by Muris et al. (1997). Girls exhibited more fears and anxiety than boys, and tended to fear different situations and objects.”
BackgroundSuminar, I. T., Gamayanti, I. L., & Lusmilasari, L. (2017) · Belitung Nursing Journal · doi:10.33546/bnj.111 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
An assessment instrument for fear in middle childhood South African children.
Burkhardt, I. K.-E. (2007) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Coss, R. G., & Blozis, S. A. (2021) · Evolutionary Psychological Science · doi:10.1007/s40806-021-00289-7 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Lee-O’Loughlin, C. (2014) · Scholar: Human Sciences · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Associative Learning Processes in the Formation of Intergroup Anxiety and Avoidance in Society
O'Donnell, A. W., Neumann, D. L., & Duffy, A. L. (2020) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/0033294120965472 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Therapists often ask clients to recall previous experiences with the feared stimuli when treating specific phobias and researchers have relied on memories of aversive events to validate aversive conditioning as an antecedent to clinical phobias (Muris et al., 1997; € Ost & Hugdahl, 1981).”
BackgroundThe Effect of Positive Verbal Information on Reducing Fears About Bats in School-Aged Children
Williams, K. (2014) · ScholarWorks (Walden University) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Zwemstra, P. J. (2008) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Michael, B. J. (2008) · SUNScholar (Stellenbosch University) · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Trimarchi, L., Waters, A. M., Simcock, G., & Farrell, L. J. (2025) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-025-03040-z · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., & Collaris, R.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University (NL)
- Venue
- Behaviour Research and Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 1997-10
- Volume
- 35
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 929-937
- ISSN
- 0005-7967 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2128569660
- Cited by
- 126
- References
- 21
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 3 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 4
- FWCI
- 6.84
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Behaviour Research and Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Therapy and Development
- Keywords
- children's fears, conditioning, spider phobia, modeling, information acquisition, children
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Animals, Child, Conditioning, Psychological, Fear, Female, Humans, Imitative Behavior, Male, Personality Assessment, Personality Development, Spiders
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