Faecal contamination of greywater and associated microbial risks
Abstract
The faecal contamination of greywater in a local treatment system at Vibyåsen, north of Stockholm, Sweden was quantified using faecal indicator bacteria and chemical biomarkers. Bacterial indicator densities overestimated the faecal load by 100-1000-fold when compared to chemical biomarkers. Based on measured levels of coprostanol, the faecal load was estimated to be 0.04 g person(-1) day(-1). Prevalence of pathogens in the population and the faecal load were used to form the basis of a screening-level quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) that was undertaken for rotavirus, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. The different exposure scenarios simulated--direct contact, irrigation of sport fields and groundwater recharge--gave unacceptably high rotavirus risks (0.04 < Pinf < 0.60) despite a low faecal load. The poor reduction of somatic coliphages, which were used as a virus model, in the treatment was one main reason and additional treatment of the greywater is suggested. Somatic coliphages can under extreme circumstances replicate in the wastewater treatment system and thereby underestimate the virus reduction. An alternative QMRA method based on faecal enterococci densities estimated similar risks as for rotavirus. Growth conditions for Salmonella in greywater sediments were also investigated and risk modelling based on replication in the system increased the probability of infection from Salmonella 1000-fold, but it was still lower than the risk of a rotavirus infection.
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Studies by Eriksson et al. (2002) and Ottoson and Stenstrom (2003) revealed a large collection of excreta-related pathogens associated with greywater.
“Studies conducted by Eriksson et al. (2002) and Ottoson and Stenstrom (2003) revealed a large collection of excreta-related pathogens associated with greywater.”
From Greywater Characteristics, Treatment Systems, Reuse Strategies and User Perception—a Review (2018) · cites this paper as Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003
Inappropriate food handling in the kitchen and direct handling of contaminated food are sources of enteric pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Campylobacter into greywater.
“Inappropriate food handling in the kitchen and direct handling of contaminated food have been identified as sources of enteric pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Campylobacter into greywater (Maimon et al. 2014; Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003).”
From Greywater Characteristics, Treatment Systems, Reuse Strategies and User Perception—a Review (2018) · cites this paper as Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003
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“Although public health risks associated with reuse of greywater are well studied (Ottoson and Stenström, 2003; Gross et al., 2005), information on the interaction of soils and plants with greywater is limited (Eriksson et al., 2003).”
BackgroundGreywater characterization and generation rates in a peri urban municipality of a developing country
Oteng-Peprah, M., de Vries, N. K., & Acheampong, M. A. (2018) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.10.068 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Hörman, A., Korpela, H., Sutinen, J., et al. (2004) · International Journal for Parasitology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpara.2004.08.009 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Sustainable airport environments: A review of water conservation practices in airports
Carvalho, I. D. C., Calijuri, M. L., Assemany, P. P., et al. (2013) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.02.016 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Salmonella reduction in manure by the addition of urea and ammonia
Ottoson, J. R., Nordin, A., von Rosen, D., & Vinnerås, B. (2007) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2007.04.009 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationBabaei, F., Ehrampoush, M. H., Eslami, H., Ghaneian, M. T., Fallahzadeh, H., Talebi, P., Fard, R. F., & Ebrahimi, A. A. (2018) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.11.255 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Ottoson, J. R., Hansen, A., Westrell, T., et al. (2006) · Water Environment Research · doi:10.2175/106143006x101719 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationFinancial and economic feasibility of decentralized wastewater reuse systems in Beijing
Liang, X. Q., & van Dijk, M. P. (2010) · Water Science & Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2010.105 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“Human health risks depend on the source of the pathogens, the treatment applied and the exposure route (Ottoson & Stenström 2003).”
BackgroundMahmoudi, A., Mousavi, S. A., & Darvishi, P. (2021) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112991 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
More environmentally friendly vehicle washes: water reclamation
Zaneti, R. N., Etchepare, R. G., & Rubio, J. (2012) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2012.06.017 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Because toilet flushing, washing faecally contaminated laundry, childcare, and showering are not included in these wastewater streams, the faecal load (Ottoson, 2003; Ottoson and Stenström, 2003) seems to be negligible and the use of E. coli for QMRA is appropriate.”
BackgroundHocaoğlu, S. M., İnsel, G., Çokgör, E. U., et al. (2010) · Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology · doi:10.1002/jctb.2423 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Greywater Reuse System Design and Economic Analysis for Residential Buildings in Taiwan
Juan, Y., Chen, Y., & Lin, J.-M. (2016) · Water · doi:10.3390/w8110546 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Greywater recycling and reuse is done by filtering and recycling miscellaneous drain water from daily use and using it in secondary water applications [9,10].”
BackgroundKhajvand, M., Mostafazadeh, A. K., Drogui, P., Tyagi, R. D., & Brien, E. (2022) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-021-16480-z · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“These indicators suggest the possibility of the presence of enteric pathogenic bacteria (e.g., Salmonella, Campylobacter), protozoa (e.g., Cryptosporidium, Giardia), and viruses (e.g., rotavirus, norovirus) in greywater (Ottoson and Stenström 2003).”
BackgroundExall, K. N. (2004) · Water Quality Research Journal · doi:10.2166/wqrj.2004.004 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“However, studies (Ottoson and Stenström 2003; Casanova et al. 2001; Rose et al. 1991) have shown that household greywater contains significant concentrations of total and fecal coliform bacteria.”
BackgroundA state-wide survey in Oregon (USA) of trace metals and organic chemicals in municipal effluent
Hope, B. K., Pillsbury, L., & Boling, B. (2012) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.12.028 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Potential microbial hazards from graywater reuse and associated matrices: A review
Benami, M., Gillor, O., & Gross, A. (2016) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2016.09.058 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Microbial risk assessment of local handling and use of human faeces
Schönning, C., Westrell, T., Stenström, T. A., et al. (2006) · Journal of Water and Health · doi:10.2166/wh.2006.049 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“When recycling other fractions such as urine or grey-water, the potential faecal cross-contamination and related pathogens may constitute the main risk (Höglund 2001; Ottoson & Stenström 2003).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBenami, M., Busgang, A., Gillor, O., & Gross, A. (2016) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.200 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Research on reclaimed water from the past to the future: a review
Li, X., Li, X., & Li, Y. (2021) · Environment, Development and Sustainability · doi:10.1007/s10668-021-01495-w · Cited by 43 · see citing works
“Quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMBA) simulates different exposure scenarios: direct exposure, irrigation and groundwater recharge (Ottoson & Stenstrom, 2003).”
BackgroundUm novo paradigma para a gestão de recursos hídricos
Hespanhol, I. (2008) · Estudos Avançados · doi:10.1590/s0103-40142008000200009 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“…de lavatórios, chuveiros, banheiras, pias de cozinha e de máquinas ou tanques de lavar roupas (Jefferson et al., 1999; eriksson et al. 2002; ottoson & stenstrom, 2003). as águas cinza-claras são também águas residenciais das quais se excluem, além dos efluentes de vasos sanitários,…”
BackgroundEffects of long-term greywater disposal on soil: A case study
Siggins, A., Burton, V., Ross, C. W., Lowe, H., & Horswell, J. (2016) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.084 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Greywater reuse - Assessment of the health risk induced by Legionella pneumophila
Blanky, M., Sharaby, Y., Rodríguez-Martínez, S., Halpern, M., & Friedler, E. (2017) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2017.08.068 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“QMRA has been applied to GW, for other (non-Legionella) pathogens 99 (Ottoson and Stenström, 2003; Maimon et al., 2010, 2014), while the risk due to exposure to 100 Legionella through GW reuse has not been assessed yet.”
MethodEssential oils for the disinfection of grey water
Winward, G. P., Avery, L. M., Stephenson, T., & Jefferson, B. (2008) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2007.12.004 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Dalahmeh, S. S., Lalander, C., Pell, M., Vinnerås, B., & Jönsson, H. (2016) · Journal of Applied Microbiology · doi:10.1111/jam.13273 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Household greywater treatment methods using natural materials and their hybrid system
Wurochekke, A. A., Mohamed, R. M. S. R., Al-Gheethi, A. A. S., Atiku, H., Amir, H., & Matias‐Peralta, H. M. (2016) · Journal of Water and Health · doi:10.2166/wh.2016.054 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Busgang, A., Friedler, E., Gilboa, Y., & Gross, A. (2018) · Water · doi:10.3390/w10040413 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Previous studies used the beta-Poisson dose-response model for Salmonella enterica [17,18,40,41] and Shigella spp.”
MethodResultGreywater production in airports: Qualitative and quantitative assessment
do Couto, E. D. A., Calijuri, M. L., Assemany, P. P., Santiago, A. D. F., & Carvalho, I. D. C. (2013) · Resources, Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.05.004 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Halalsheh et al. (2008) analyzed reywater produced in small rural villages in Jordan and found . coli values of up to 105 NMP/100 mL. Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003), in a study carried out in Stockholm, Sweden, obtained E. coli alues of up to 106 NMP/100 mL.”
ResultPinto, U., & Maheshwari, B. L. (2010) · Urban Water Journal · doi:10.1080/15730620903447639 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“2002 ; Ottoson and Stenstrom 2003 ; Palmquist and Hanaeus 2005 ).”
BackgroundMicrobial risk assessment and its implications for risk management in urban water systems
Westrell, T. (2004) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Li, L., Xiao, K., Wong, P. K., et al. (2022) · ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces · doi:10.1021/acsami.1c20834 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Chigor, V. N., Sibanda, T., & Okoh, A. I. (2014) · Food and Environmental Virology · doi:10.1007/s12560-014-9138-4 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Starkl, M., Josephine, A., Aymerich, E., Brunner, N., Chubilleau, C., Das, S., Ghangrekar, M. M., Kazmi, A. A., Philip, L., & Singh, A. (2018) · Environmental Impact Assessment Review · doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2018.03.002 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Resources and nutrients oriented greywater treatment for non-potable reuses
Li, F., Behrendt, J., Wichmann, K., & Otterpohl, R. (2008) · Water Science and Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2008.601 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“Greywater is defined as the urban wastewater that includes water from baths, showers, hand wash basins, washing machines, dishwashers and kitchen sinks, but excludes input from toilets ( Jefferson et al. 1999; Otterpohl et al. 1999; Eriksson et al. 2002; Ottoson & Stenström 2003).”
BackgroundExposure Assessment and Risk of Gastrointestinal Illness Among Surfers
Stone, D. L., Harding, A. K., Hope, B. K., et al. (2008) · Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health · doi:10.1080/15287390802414406 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
“The infectivity parameter (k) was drawn from a triangular distribution with minimum of 177 (Ottoson & Stenström, 2003), a mode of 1442, and a maximum of 14,427.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAnalysing the financial efficiency of use of water and energy saving systems in single-family homes
Stec, A., Kordana-Obuch, S., & Słyś, D. (2017) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.03.071 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Cabral, A. C., Stark, J. S., Kolm, H. E., et al. (2018) · Environmental Pollution · doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2017.12.109 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Greywater treatment by slanted soil system
Ushijima, K., Ito, K., Ito, R., et al. (2012) · Ecological Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2012.04.028 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…for irrigation use, however separated gerywater contains 2 log 10 or more lower bacterial pathogen than mixture wastewater which WHO assumed (Ottoson & Stenström, 2003) and therefore we are able to set 5 log 10 as a target level of bacterial pathogen reduction for separated greywater…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialKatukiza, A. Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C. B., Kansiime, F., & Lens, P. N. L. (2014) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.12.003 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Reduction of microbial risk associated with greywater by disinfection processes for irrigation
Al-Gheethi, A. A. S., Mohamed, R. M. S. R., Noman, E. A., & Hashim, M. K. A. (2015) · Journal of Water and Health · doi:10.2166/wh.2015.220 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Sustainability Assessment for Wastewater Treatment Systems in Developing Countries
Starkl, M., Brunner, N., Das, S., et al. (2022) · Water · doi:10.3390/w14020241 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Tombola, R., Buttiglieri, G., Auset, M., & Gonzalez‐Olmos, R. (2019) · Journal of Environmental Management · doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.02.116 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Review of pathogen treatment reductions for onsite non-potable reuse of alternative source waters
Schoen, M. E., & Garland, J. L. (2015) · Microbial Risk Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.mran.2015.10.001 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Yasar, A., & Tabinda, A. B. (2010) · Polish Journal of Environmental Studies · Cited by 42 · see citing works
The Missing Pieces: The Role of Secretion Systems in Campylobacter jejuni Virulence
Gabbert, A. D., Mydosh, J. L., Talukdar, P. K., et al. (2023) · Biomolecules · doi:10.3390/biom13010135 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
“Humans may be exposed through water systems by accidental ingestion, following landscape irrigation, or by consumption of recharged groundwater [19].”
BackgroundBusgang, A., Friedler, E., Ovadia, O., & Gross, A. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.08.009 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Greywater technology testing protocol
Storey, M., Toifl, M., & Diaper, C. (2008) · CSIRO · doi:10.4225/08/59aef594a011d · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Campylobacter risk for the consumers of wastewater-irrigated vegetables based on field experiments
Farhadkhani, M., Nikaeen, M., Hadi, M., Gholipour, S., & Yadegarfar, G. (2020) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126408 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Greywater disinfection with the environmentally friendly Hydrogen Peroxide Plus (HPP)
Ronen, Z., Guerrero, A., & Gross, A. (2009) · Chemosphere · doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2009.09.067 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Bernardes, F. S., Herrera, P. G., Chiquito, G. M., Morales, M., de Castro, A. P., & Paulo, P. L. (2019) · Ecological Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2019.105581 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
ULTRAVIOLET (UV) DISINFECTION OF GREY WATER: PARTICLE SIZE EFFECTS
Winward, G. P., Avery, L. M., Stephenson, T., & Jefferson, B. (2008) · Environmental Technology · doi:10.1080/09593330802030069 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“The presence of faecal indicator bacteria Escherichia coli and Enterococci in grey water [7] indicates the potential presence of faecally-transmitted pathogens.”
BackgroundThe question of pathogen quantification in disinfected graywater
Benami, M., Gillor, O., & Gross, A. (2014) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.11.051 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Qian, Y., Criswell, M., Stromberger, M. E., & Klein, S. (2006) · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Bischel, H. N., Caduff, L., Schindelholz, S., et al. (2019) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.9b01092 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Combination of foam fractionation and photo-Fenton like processes for greywater treatment
Faggiano, A., Ricciardi, M., Fiorentino, A., et al. (2022) · Separation and Purification Technology · doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121114 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Strategic Planning of Sustainable Urban Water Management
Malmqvist, P., Heinicke, G., Kärrman, E., Stenström, T. A., & Svensson, G. (2015) · Water Intelligence Online · doi:10.2166/9781780402413 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Self-citationJahne, M. A., Schoen, M. E., Garland, J. L., & Ashbolt, N. J. (2016) · Microbial Risk Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.mran.2016.11.001 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“An alternative approach is the use of indicators to determine fecal contamination of the water and epidemiological data to estimate pathogens shed in that feces (Barker et al., 2013a; Ottoson and Stenström, 2003; Schoen et al., 2014; Fane et al., 2002).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialA probabilistic QMRA of Salmonella in direct agricultural reuse of treated municipal wastewater
Amha, Y. M., Kumaraswamy, R., & Ahmad, F. (2015) · Water Science & Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2015.093 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Health risk assessment of non-potable domestic water supplies in the Netherlands
Oesterholt, F. I. H. M., Martijnse, G., Medema, G. J., et al. (2007) · AQUA - Water Infrastructure Ecosystems and Society · doi:10.2166/aqua.2007.043 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Risk-based cost-benefit analysis for evaluating microbial risk mitigation in a drinking water system
Bergion, V., Lindhé, A., Sokolova, E., et al. (2017) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2017.12.054 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ottoson, J., & Stenström, T. A.
- Affiliations
- Swedish Institute (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Ottoson, Jakob
- Venue
- Water Research
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2003-02
- Volume
- 37
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 645-655
- ISSN
- 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2043053897
- Semantic Scholar
- 3a1d9d5c985c69e711621b450913e97f7b3ea62d
- Cited by
- 339
- References
- 55
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 9.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Water Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
- Keywords
- greywater, fecal contamination, fecal indicator bacteria, chemical markers, coprostanol, quantitative microbial risk assessment, rotavirus, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, somatic coliphages, groundwater recharge, fecal enterococci
- MeSH terms
- Bacteria, Conservation of Natural Resources, Feces, Models, Theoretical, Rotavirus, Waste Disposal, Fluid, Water Supply, Biomarkers, Risk Assessment
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