Cited by 340Fecal contamination and water qualityWastewater Treatment and ReusePharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts

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Faecal contamination of greywater and associated microbial risks

Ottoson, Jakob, Stenström, Thor Axel·2003·Water Research

DOI 10.1016/s0043-1354(02)00352-4

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Abstract

The faecal contamination of greywater in a local treatment system at Vibyåsen, north of Stockholm, Sweden was quantified using faecal indicator bacteria and chemical biomarkers. Bacterial indicator densities overestimated the faecal load by 100-1000-fold when compared to chemical biomarkers. Based on measured levels of coprostanol, the faecal load was estimated to be 0.04 g person(-1) day(-1). Prevalence of pathogens in the population and the faecal load were used to form the basis of a screening-level quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) that was undertaken for rotavirus, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum. The different exposure scenarios simulated--direct contact, irrigation of sport fields and groundwater recharge--gave unacceptably high rotavirus risks (0.04 < Pinf < 0.60) despite a low faecal load. The poor reduction of somatic coliphages, which were used as a virus model, in the treatment was one main reason and additional treatment of the greywater is suggested. Somatic coliphages can under extreme circumstances replicate in the wastewater treatment system and thereby underestimate the virus reduction. An alternative QMRA method based on faecal enterococci densities estimated similar risks as for rotavirus. Growth conditions for Salmonella in greywater sediments were also investigated and risk modelling based on replication in the system increased the probability of infection from Salmonella 1000-fold, but it was still lower than the risk of a rotavirus infection.

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“Özellikle yaz aylarında patojen üremesinin önüne geçebilmek adına binalarda yüksek verimlerde arıtma yapabilen sistemlerin kurulmuş olması gerekmektedir [3,4].”
Systems Modeling for the Planning of Greywater Management in New Housing Developments in the City of Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico
Mendoza‐Espinosa, L. G., Figueroa-Nolasco, M. O., & Lopezcalva, E. (2006) · Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation · doi:10.2175/193864706783775414 · Cited by 2
Decentralized Urban Wastewater Reuse in China : - with Focus on Grey Water
Zhong, L. (2013) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 2
Technical implications of light greywater production and quality for decentralized treatment and reuse: A case study in Bucaramanga, Colombia
Burgos-Arias, J., Rey-Romero, D. C., & Oviedo-Ocaña, É. R. (2025) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10661-025-13853-6 · Cited by 1
“The presence of pathogens in LGW is expected due to hygiene-related activities such as anal cleaning in showers (Ottoson & Stenström, 2003), handwashing after using the toilet (Blanky et al., 2015), and urine.”
Assessing the long-term health risk of non-potable greywater reuse options based on four selected bacterial pathogens
Neta, H., & Friedler, E. (2025) · Water Science & Technology · doi:10.2166/wst.2025.115 · Cited by 1
Evaluating wood ash as a low-cost disinfectant for faecal and total coliform removal in bathroom greywater from Low-income communities in Zimbabwe
Mbiza, H., Scholz, M., & Dinka, M. O. (2025) · Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development · doi:10.2166/washdev.2025.309 · Cited by 1
Public Health Risks of Pathogenic Bacteria in Freshwater Bodies: A Review of Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment Approaches and Applications
Priya, M., Jasrotia, S., & Abia, A. L. K. (2026) · Limnological Review · doi:10.3390/limnolrev26010010 · Cited by 3
Long-term evaluation of a hybrid treatment wetland for greywater treatment and microbial risks of reuse in landscaping
Sami, M., Hedström, A., Kvarnström, E., Jenssen, P. D. J., McCarthy, D. T., & Herrmann, I. (2026) · Water Reuse · doi:10.2166/wrd.2026.088 · Cited by 1
Regulatory issues associated with graywater reuse
Glenn, R. T., Sharvelle, S., Roesner, L., & Glick, S. (2007) · Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University) · doi:10.25675/3.018850 · Cited by 1
Graywater Irrigation as a Means to Meet Water Demands in Arid Regions
Sharvelle, S. E., Azar, M. N., Stromberger, M. E., et al. (2009) · World Environmental and Water Resources Congress (EWRI) · doi:10.1061/41036(342)117 · Cited by 1
Safety management of grey water - prevention against potential system risks
Rysulová, M., Kaposztásová, D., & Vranayová, Z. (2015) · Zeszyty Naukowe Politechniki Rzeszowskiej. Budownictwo i Inżynieria Środowiska · doi:10.7862/rb.2015.163 · Cited by 1
Graywater application for landscape irrigation: greenhouse studies
Shogbon, A., Sharvelle, S. E., Shackelford, C. D., & Qian, Y. (2007) · Digital Collections of Colorado (Colorado State University) · doi:10.25675/3.024649 · Cited by 1
Evaluación cuantitativa de riesgos microbiológicos asociado con el consumo de agua del Río Chicamocha en Boavita- Boyacá
de Colombia, U. P. Y. T., Vargas, J. D., Lizarazo, L. M., et al. (2019) · Revista U D C A Actualidad & Divulgación Científica · doi:10.31910/rudca.v22.n1.2019.1187 · Cited by 1
The Short Pipe Path – Safe Water, Energy & Nutrient Recovery
Ashbolt, N. J. (2011) · Proceedings of the Water Environment Federation · doi:10.2175/193864711802836896 · Cited by 1
IMPORTANT FACTORS OF OPEN DEFECATION CONTROLLING EFFORTS IN GREATER BANDUNG URBAN SLUM AREA
Sofyan, L., Soewondo, P., Kunaefi, T. D., et al. (2022) · Ecodevelopment · doi:10.24198/ecodev.v4i1.39128 · Cited by 1
Treatment of Domestic Gray Water by Multicomponent Filters
Mohamed, R. M. S. R., Al-Gheethi, A. A. S., Sainudin, M. S., et al. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-73645-7_34 · Cited by 1
Effect of different types of fillers in membrane bioreactors for greywater treatment and membrane fouling
Shi, C., Wang, C., Yan, B., et al. (2023) · Desalination and Water Treatment · doi:10.5004/dwt.2023.29647 · Cited by 1
“Greywater refers to domestic sewage, including washing, shower, laundry, and kitchen water, excluding toilet feces and toilet flushing mixed waste - water [1].”
Background
Activity of a foam in preventing rebound of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium-containing droplets generated from the toilet bowl
Valzano, F., Coda, A. R. D., Marangi, M., Bella, G. L., Liso, A., & Arena, F. (2024) · Archives of Microbiology · doi:10.1007/s00203-023-03775-7 · Cited by 1
“This suspension was then diluted in 1500 mL of sterile distilled water to reach a final bacterial concentration of ~ 1.5 × 10 6 CFU/mL, potentially present in toilet water and wastewater (Barker and Bloomfield 2000; Ottoson and Stenström 2003; Oteng-Peprah et al. 2018).”
MethodResultInfluential
Remarks on sustainable disposal and potential reuse of greywater in an informal urban settlement, Cape Town, South Africa
Malaza, N., Magaba, S. L., & Mpungose, P. P. (2024) · Open Research Europe · doi:10.12688/openreseurope.17775.1 · Cited by 1
The potential of alternative water sources for potable water savings in Ukraine's residential areas
Orel, V., Vovk, L., Femiak, V., et al. (2024) · Problems of Water supply Sewerage and Hydraulic · doi:10.32347/2524-0021.2024.48.43-50 · Cited by 1
Ocena skuteczności filtracji ścieków szarych z zastosowaniem różnych wkładów filtracyjnych
Mucha, J. (2014) · GAZ WODA I TECHNIKA SANITARNA · Cited by 1
ANÁLISIS DE RIESGO SANITARIO EN AGUAS GRISES DE LA PROVINCIA DE BUENOS AIRES, ARGENTINA
Núñez, L., Molinari, C., Paz, M., et al. (2014) · Redalyc (Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México) · Cited by 1
Considerações sobre os valores máximos permitidos (VMP) de E. coli em águas cinza, visando ao reúso por meio de avaliação quantitativa de riscos microbiológicos (AQRM)
Leite, D. B. P., & Moruzzi, R. B. (2016) · Engenharia Sanitaria e Ambiental · doi:10.1590/s1413-41522016119617 · Cited by 1
Greywater Storage, Treatment and Reuse in Residences
Morato, S. N. B., Vieira, Z. C., Santos, E. D. S., et al. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-30938-1_50 · Cited by 1
Chapter 6Perceptions and Attitudes toward Greywater Recycling: A Review
Gross, A., Maimon, A., Alfiya, Y., & Friedler, E. (2015) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/b18217-10 · Cited by 1
Investigation of anaerobic up-flow batch reactor for treatment of greywater in un-sewered settlements.
Muanda, C. (2009) · Cited by 1
DESEMPENHO DE UM "WETLAND" VERTICAL APLICADO AO TRATAMENTO DO EFLUENTE DE UM FILTRO ANAERÓBIO EM UMA ESTAÇÃO DE TRATAMENTO DE ÁGUAS CINZAS CLARAS VISANDO O REÚSO NÃO POTÁVEL EM EDIFICAÇÕES RESIDENCIAIS
Sarnaglia, S. A. A. (2014) · Americanae (AECID Library) · Cited by 1
Investigating the efficacy of graywater use at the household level
Alkhatib, R. Y., & Roesner, L. A. (2008) · Colorado State University · doi:10.25675/3.018930 · Cited by 1
Integrated pollution prevention and control for the municipal water cycle in a river basin context: validation of the three-step strategic approach
Galvis, A. (2019) · doi:10.18174/475836 · Cited by 1
Effect of Different Types of Fillers in Membrane Bioreactors (Mbr) for Greywater Treatment and Membrane FoulingPreprint
Shi, C. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4097392 · Cited by 1

Authors: Ottoson, J., & Stenström, T. A.
Affiliations: Swedish Institute (SE)
Corresponding author: Ottoson, Jakob
Venue: Water Research
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2003-02
Volume: 37
Issue: 3
Pages: 645-655
ISSN: 0043-1354 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/s0043-1354(02)00352-4
OpenAlex: W2043053897
Semantic Scholar: 3a1d9d5c985c69e711621b450913e97f7b3ea62d
Cited by: 339
References: 55
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 15 · 2023: 14 · 2022: 18 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 22 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 12
FWCI: 9.46
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Water Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
Keywords: greywater, fecal contamination, fecal indicator bacteria, chemical markers, coprostanol, quantitative microbial risk assessment, rotavirus, Salmonella typhimurium, Campylobacter jejuni, Giardia lamblia, Cryptosporidium parvum, somatic coliphages, groundwater recharge, fecal enterococci
MeSH terms: Bacteria, Conservation of Natural Resources, Feces, Models, Theoretical, Rotavirus, Waste Disposal, Fluid, Water Supply, Biomarkers, Risk Assessment

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Faecal contamination of greywater and associated microbial risks

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