The legal determinants of health: harnessing the power of law for global health and sustainable development

In the paper

“(ii) they have common underlying causes, such as dangerous pathogens, unhealthy behaviours, or unsafe environments;”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Abstract discusses transnational risks and political and social determinants of health, but it does not identify common underlying causes of global health hazards. Searches for pathogens, unhealthy behaviours, unsafe environments, and shared risk factors found no passage making the attributed point. (LLM, conf=0.73)

  cites [2] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Supported

  Section 3, “Stronger health systems and policies” (page not provided), identifies key risk factors associated with infections, non-communicable diseases, and injuries, including unsafe sex, tobacco use, poor sanitation, and unsafe roads. Section 5 also groups determinants of non-communicable diseases and injuries into behavioural and environmental risk factors. Together, these passages support the claim’s broad description of underlying health hazards. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites [3] source
• Partly supported

  The ‘Under-regulation of transnational activities and effects on health equity’ section describes environmental toxins as health hazards, supporting the unsafe-environments example. But ‘Market dominance’ calls biological and behavioural factors immediate causes of illness, while ‘Power asymmetries and competing norms’ places the root causes of avoidable health outcomes beyond the health sector. The paper does not present dangerous pathogens, unhealthy behaviours and unsafe environments together as common underlying causes of global health hazards. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  cites [4] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Global health hazards nowadays share four important features: (i) health hazards are not bound by borders, ranging from infectious diseases, to non-communicable diseases, and injuries;”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Abstract describes 21st-century risks as transnational and gives infectious diseases, including SARS and avian influenza, as examples. It does not substantiate the full stated range of hazards: the passages do not identify injuries, and they do not explicitly characterize non-communicable diseases as cross-border hazards. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites [2] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• Supported

  The Introduction describes infections, non-communicable diseases, and injuries as a global health burden. Section 7 calls for international collective action on all three, explicitly noting the international spread of infectious threats and the global spread of non-communicable disease risk factors. Together, these passages support the broad claim that these hazards are not confined by national borders. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites [3] source
• Supported

  The Abstract says globalisation increasingly links health inequity to transnational activities. The ‘Inadequate policy space for health’ section identifies non-communicable diseases alongside pandemics and violence as global health challenges, and ‘Acute effects of armed conflict on civilian morbidity and mortality’ explicitly includes injury. Together, these passages support the broad paraphrase; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  cites [4] source

In the paper

“(iii) they are exacerbated by inequities linked to the socio-economic determinants of health;”

What the sources say

• Supported

  The supplied Abstract passages link global health risks to political and social determinants of health and describe globalization as leaving the poorest and most vulnerable behind. The discussion of unequal access to education, health, medicines and surveillance in poor countries supports the claim as a broad paraphrase. Page numbers were not supplied. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  cites [2] source
• Supported

  The Abstract says income and education are social determinants that affect health through nutrition, sanitation, and other risk factors. The section “Three health challenges of the next 20 years” reports higher rates of avoidable disease and mortality among poorer and rural populations. Together, these passages support the claim; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  cites [3] source
• Supported

  The Ilona Kickbusch section says the poorest groups bear the heaviest burden of health risks and disease, and links differences in health to socioeconomic inequality. It describes a gradient of worsening physical and mental health down the social ladder. No page number is supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  cites [4] source

In the paper

“between 1999 and 2008 there were 674 612 actions for protection of constitutional rights in relation to health issues.70, 71”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Introduction (p. 4) discusses constitutional review and rights generally, while the Results (p. 14) analyze cross-country measures of freedom. Searches for 674,612, Colombia, health-related rights actions, and 1999–2008 found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed count. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  cites [70] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
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  cites [71]

In the paper

“Furthermore, studies show that for every dollar spent on key health services, the direct and indirect benefits would exceed costs by a factor of between 9 and 20, further showing the benefits that arise from investing in health.3”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The National opportunities and Costs and consequences of convergence sections report projected benefits exceeding costs by about 9-fold for low-income countries and about 20-fold for lower-middle-income countries. These are estimates for a specified scale-up of interventions toward convergence by 2035, conditional on targeting the right interventions and strengthening health systems—not a general return for every dollar spent on key health services. No page numbers were provided for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites [3] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Brazil's Constitution likewise recognises health as a social right.86, 143”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [86]
• ?Could not verify

  The paper’s “Internal GHO policies” section discusses the WHO constitution and organizational human-rights policies, not Brazil’s Constitution. Searches for “Brazil” and for health as a social right in Brazil found no passage addressing the claimed constitutional provision; the available passages therefore do not verify it. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites [143]Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“As a result, law has been integral to many of the great public health successes of the past century, including motor vehicle safety, tobacco control, infectious diseases control, a safer food supply, workplace safety, and childhood vaccinations.200”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Discussion (page unavailable) compares legislation with voluntary salt-reduction targets in South Africa and the UK; the Conclusions say it remains unknown whether mandatory targets are more effective. Searches for the listed achievements and for law’s role in past public health successes found no passage addressing the historical claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites [200] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Despite past successes, law remains underutilised as a tool for population health.207”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The Article and Conclusion (page numbers unavailable) say that more can be done to strengthen legal responses to obesity and call for a global legal framework. They do not establish that law remains underutilised across population health generally; the Conclusion also says earlier taxation and education did little to stem obesity, rather than describing past successes. (LLM, conf=0.81)

  cites [207]Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“For example, in response to local efforts to implement SSB taxes within California (the largest state in the USA, with over 39 million residents), the beverage industry engaged in an aggressive and ultimately successful strategy to preempt local taxation authority.”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The United States section discusses prevention of mental disorders, not beverage taxation. Searches for California, beverage-industry preemption, and sugar-sweetened beverage taxes found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.79)

  cites [251] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
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  cites [252]
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  cites [253]

In the paper

“Furthermore, compliance and enforcement challenges are only made more difficult in the presence of aggressive opposition from vested commercial interests.225”

What the sources say

• Partly supported

  The paper states that compliance and enforcement of road-safety laws in many low- and middle-income countries is poor (body text; page unavailable). It does not mention aggressive opposition from vested commercial interests or say that such opposition worsens those challenges; searches for that phrase and related terms found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  cites [225] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“WHO supports adoption of SSB taxes as a strategy to help combat non-communicable diseases, particularly obesity and diabetes, citing evidence that an SSB tax that increases consumer prices by 20% can lead to an approximate 20% reduction in consumption.249”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The paper’s discussion of the Improving Access to Psychological Therapies programme (p. 637) concerns treatment for anxiety and depression. Searches for the 20% price-and-consumption estimate and for WHO guidance on sugar-sweetened beverage taxes found no passage addressing either point. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  cites [249] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The UN Office on Drugs and Crime has stated that the UN drug conventions do not require penalisation of drug use or drug possession for personal use,280, 281”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The Abstract and the section on building momentum for soda taxes discuss sugary-drink policy, not UN drug conventions. Searches for the UN Office on Drugs and Crime and penalties for personal drug use or possession found no passage addressing the claim in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  cites [280] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
• ?Not matched

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  cites [281]

In the paper

“Evidence shows that legislating on five key behavioural risk factors—speeding, drink driving, helmet use, seat belt use, and child restraint use—could significantly reduce this toll.266”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The passages from “Impact on displaced Syrians in Lebanon” and “The 2015–2016 Lebanon crisis response” discuss refugee welfare and public services, not road traffic injuries. Searches for the five named risk factors and for road-safety legislation found no passage in our copy addressing whether such laws could reduce injuries. (LLM, conf=0.78)

  cites [266] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“Outside of sub-Saharan Africa, up to 30% of all new HIV infections occur among people who inject drugs with unsafe injecting practices.285”

What the sources say

• ?Could not verify

  The discussion of syringe exchange programs (Toward a Transdisciplinary Public Health Law Infrastructure, p. 5) does not give an HIV-infection estimate. Searches for the 30% figure, new HIV infections, unsafe injecting, and sub-Saharan Africa found no passage in our copy addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  cites [285] sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured

In the paper

“The decision provided necessary definition and limits to the right to health for Colombia.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [73]

In the paper

“rather than creating a more equitable dispute resolution system for all Colombians, tutelas were often exploited by members of the wealthier class.72”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [72]

In the paper

“In some cases, they have protected industry interests over the public's health.”

In the paper

“Tobacco companies have used both ICSID and WTO processes to challenge tobacco control laws in Uruguay (marketing restrictions) and Australia (plain packaging).”

In the paper

“In the US tobacco litigation, industry defendants imposed enormous delays and high costs over the course of decades and multiple waves of litigation before health advocates eventually gained traction in the courts.76”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [76]

In the paper

“However, in many jurisdictions, these intellectual property protections have limited individuals' access to medicines.”

In the paper

“States have an obligation to ensure available, accessible, affordable, and acceptable health facilities.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [29] source

In the paper

“The second legal determinant states that law can be used to strengthen the governance of national and global health institutions.”

• Also stated in: § Executive Summary · plain

  “Legal determinant 2 states that law can strengthen the governance of national and global health institutions.”

In the paper

“Furthermore, processes to develop soft rules can include a more diverse coalition of actors beyond nation states, including voices from civil society that are traditionally marginalised in treaty negotiations.22”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [22]

In the paper

“By establishing the rules and frameworks that shape social and economic interactions, laws exert a powerful force on all the social determinants of health.”

• Also stated in: § Law and global health · plain

  “Law exerts a powerful influence on health by structuring, perpetuating, and mediating the risk factors and underlying conditions known as the social determinants of health:10 education, food, housing, income, employment, sanitation, and health care.”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] source

In the paper

“SDG 16 links the rule of law to development, as a crucial foundation for the creation and maintenance of “just, inclusive and peaceful societies”.25”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [25]

In the paper

“Governments are often more willing to sign up to goals that are framed as targets or declarations rather than obligations.21”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [21] source

In the paper

“Although these patents cover a broad range of features, the reality of country-specific patent regimes means that a patent granted in one country might not be granted by, or even filed in another country.”

In the paper

“These cases, along with other right to health litigation, have contributed greatly to social movements.63”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [63]

In the paper

“The Court found that limiting access was a breach of the right to health care, which was not consistent with a positive state obligation to progressively realise the rights of mothers and infants to essential health services.60”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [60]

In the paper

“Tobacco litigation is perhaps the most familiar example of successful strategic litigation to drive public policy.57”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [57]

In the paper

“The former is promising because more than 60% of people with hepatitis C nowadays live in a country that could access generic direct-acting antivirals.46”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [46]

In the paper

“Despite the existence of an effective cure, the number of people treated for hepatitis C still remains a relatively small fraction of those infected or diagnosed.45, 46”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [45]
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  cites [46]

In the paper

“Strategic litigation can also precisely interpret broad or abstract principles, such as the right to health, leading to improved health care.”

In the paper

“Countries often have broad discretion as to how, and to what extent, they conform to international norms and standards.”

In the paper

“Patents covering various aspects of direct-acting antivirals prevent the entry of competitors, allowing originator companies to select the price for the market.48”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [48] source

In the paper

“Many international instruments, including WHO's constitution and treaties, contain state obligations to safeguard health-related rights.”

In the paper

“In Minister of Health versus Treatment Action Campaign (2002), the Constitutional Court of South Africa held that government limits on the public sector provision of nevirapine were unreasonable and unconstitutional.”

In the paper

“Patent-related barriers that keep prices high substantially contribute to this problem.46”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [46]

In the paper

“The state's primary obligation is to protect the health and safety of its inhabitants, not only citizens and lawful residents, but also asylum seekers, refugees, and undocumented immigrants.”

In the paper

“In the absence of the rule of law, neither health nor development can be fully realised.”

In the paper

“In contrast to certain well established dispute settlement systems, WHO's treaty dispute mechanisms are weak.”

In the paper

“Governments use all three functions of law to establish the frameworks of authority needed to move from principles to actions.”

In the paper

“WTO members are required to implement the 1995 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) through national legislation recognising and enforcing pharmaceutical patents.54”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [54] source

In the paper

“Checks and balances are crucial to the rule of law (panel 5 ).84”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [84]

In the paper

“WHO's PIP Framework uses a combination of non-binding norms and legally binding contracts to achieve its aims.”

In the paper

“Many industries, including the food, beverage, alcohol, and tobacco industries often use litigation to diminish innovative public health laws.”

In the paper

“Furthermore, regional and international human rights treaties often have quasi-judicial dispute settlement systems for states that accept to be bound by them, which are available once domestic avenues have been exhausted”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [80] source

In the paper

“In 2005, the 58th World Health Assembly (WHA) adopted a resolution for sustainable health financing, universal coverage, and social health insurance, calling on countries to plan for the transition to UHC.126”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [126]

In the paper

“Whether at the grassroots level or internationally, participation by non-state actors and civil society organisations in governing processes increases the legitimacy, transparency, justice, and democracy of such processes.”

In the paper

“The WHO and the World Bank both estimate that at least half of the world's population cannot obtain essential health services.117”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [117]

In the paper

“Going well beyond health-care services, they encompass the multiple conditions needed for health and safety throughout the lifespan.”

In the paper

“Health systems range from national health systems with single or multiple payers, to government subsidised access, to public or private insurance; therefore, no single path exists to UHC.134”

What the sources say

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  cites [134]

In the paper

“Industries' use of the commercial speech doctrine has also undermined public health regulations designed to prevent obesity and other non-communicable disease risk factors.”

In the paper

“In turn, law can help give these goals tangible effect, moving the question from “what is sustainable development?” to “how can sustainable development be achieved?”116”

What the sources say

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  cites [116]

In the paper

“to establish new institutions with a specific or broad health mandate (eg, governing institutions)”

In the paper

“In countries with a longer history of UHC, funds are traditionally raised through compulsory pre-payment schemes, such as taxation, compulsory insurance contributions, or a combination of both.86”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [86]

In the paper

“The duty to provide UHC derives from two sources of law: national and international.”

In the paper

“States, of course, are not entirely restricted in the ability to make trade-offs: their actions are constrained, at the very least, by their human rights obligations—especially the right to health.”

In the paper

“The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) guidelines on maternal morbidity and mortality and human rights, the UNAIDS and OHCHR guidelines on HIV and AIDS and human rights, and the Maastricht Principles on Extraterritorial Obligations of States in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights all confirm the international obligation to provide assistance on UHC.”

In the paper

“If the rule of law is weak, it will be difficult to engage other legal mechanisms to achieve not only UHC, but also more basic tasks of governance.”

In the paper

“The State's duty and power to implement UHC derives from its constitution or legislation.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [141]
• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [142] source
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  cites [86]

In the paper

“Conversely, low-income and lower-middle-income countries that have moved towards UHC are using novel mixes of funding mechanisms for their national health insurance models.158”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [158]

In the paper

“As described above, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights offered an authoritative interpretation of “the right to the highest attainable standard of health” in General Comment 14.29”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [29] source

In the paper

“Regardless of a government's motivation for pursuing UHC, the legal foundations remain the same in that a state has the sovereign duty and authority to safeguard the public's health and safety.15”

What the sources say

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  cites [15]

In the paper

“Effective access, particularly for those with the least means, will not only depend on how health systems are designed (eg, strengthening primary health services), but also on how health insurance systems are designed.”

In the paper

“These mechanisms and choices will affect each of the crucial measures of UHC: access, equity, quality, cost, and choice.”

In the paper

“However, countries embracing UHC tend to consider health a basic human right, often enshrined in their national constitutions or laws.”

In the paper

“Yet, governments are also obligated to provide international assistance to protect and promote the right to health, for example under article 2(1) of the ICESCR.”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [42]

In the paper

“Otherwise, the international system creates a situation in which governments can blame each other for not doing enough.150”

What the sources say

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  cites [150]

In the paper

“Beyond the ICESCR, many treaties safeguard health rights, including non-discrimination in access—for example, the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.”

In the paper

“Governments often exclude a wide swath of vulnerable people from high quality services, including asylum seekers, refugees, undocumented immigrants, expatriate workers, indigenous peoples, nomadic people, or groups that are historically marginalised because of sexual orientation, gender identity, sex characteristics, disability, political beliefs, or religious affiliation.153, 154”

What the sources say

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  cites [153]
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  cites [154]

In the paper

“Furthermore, the UN Special Rapporteurs on the Right to Health have been clear on the obligations of states in so-called hard law and soft rules.145”

What the sources say

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  cites [145]

In the paper

“Without adequate legal frameworks to support it, so-called universality might be no more than an aspiration, doing little to change “policies under which many governments either deliberately or passively refuse to grant access to health services to some people living within their national borders”.153”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [153]

In the paper

“Countries representing half of the world's population (Brazil, China, India, Russian Federation, and South Africa) are engaged in health system reforms to extend service coverage and increase financial protection.135”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [135]

In the paper

“If governments place a high value on individual choice in the private market, this will affect measures such as access, equity, quality, and cost.151”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [151]

In the paper

“The inability to enforce and ensure compliance with international law has stymied the international community's ability to fully use human rights law to prevent or ameliorate gross inequalities.”

In the paper

“In South Africa, the Constitutional Court required access to antiretroviral medication for pregnant women,60”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [60]

In the paper

“Weak monitoring, assessment, and follow-up capacity can also present a challenge to the effectiveness of international instruments like the IHR.”

In the paper

“The FCTC and IHR—the two major international legal instruments under the direct authority of WHO—have been plagued by incomplete state compliance.39”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] source

In the paper

“Furthermore, regarding the points at which JEE does identify gaps in IHR competencies, no comprehensive global mechanism exists to assist low-income countries to finance required reforms.”

In the paper

“Monitoring and evaluation provide crucial information on health system performance, which assists countries in making further progress towards UHC.118”

What the sources say

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  cites [118]

In the paper

“Although the IHR encourage international assistance to build capacity in lower-income states, higher-income states—with notable exceptions, such as the US-led Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA)—have largely ignored the treaty's norms of international financial and technical cooperation.”

In the paper

“The mandates of national and global health actors frequently overlap, which can impede the effective use of law to set norms and standards, and to resolve disputes.”

In the paper

“Robust public accountability and participation are more likely to result in reasonable and legitimate decisions, and fair, effective implementation.”

In the paper

“These activities are largely unsupported by WHO or through other forms of international assistance.183”

What the sources say

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  cites [183]

In the paper

“However, even though treaties are binding legal instruments, their implementation can be suboptimal because of weak enforcement and inadequate compliance.”

In the paper

“Fragmentation also exists in the international legal system governing global health.”

In the paper

“The norms of international law guide behaviour, but often, treaty oversight bodies have few means by which to compel, or even incentivise, compliance.”

In the paper

“At the national level, multiple ministries can have profound and sometimes conflicting effects on health, resulting in policy incoherence.”

In the paper

“Finally, good governance is an important role of the law in achieving UHC.”

In the paper

“Litigation can raise its own problems, including the concern that it could favour wealthy litigants and thus entrench health inequalities.163”

What the sources say

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  cites [163]

In the paper

“Law can also promote good governance in UHC adoption and implementation, including transparency and inclusive participation.”

In the paper

“Conversely, Colombia's Constitution Court required priorities to be decided through a participatory, evidence-based process (panel 4).”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites panel 4

In the paper

“Each of these mechanisms can raise legal issues.”

In the paper

“International law can be an important tool for global health because of its power to create norms that are binding on states parties.”

In the paper

“Furthermore, at each stage of the financing process (from revenue raising, to pooling, to the purchasing of services by providers and governments) regulation plays an important role in ensuring funds are allocated fairly and transparently.86”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

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  cites [86]

In the paper

“The second legal determinant states that law can be used to strengthen the governance of national and global health institutions.”

In the paper

“In global health, the options to incentivise or coerce behaviour in the face of non-compliance are even more limited.181”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [181] source

In the paper

“Given the broad definition and remit of global health, multiple institutions can claim a mandate on particular issues.”

In the paper

“Failures of governance, including the WHO's response to the west Africa Ebola epidemic, or national scandals relating to food poisoning, or tainted milk or medicines, highlight institutional and systemic weaknesses.”

In the paper

“In determining what is and is not covered, states use a variety of legal mechanisms and institutions, including the following four examples. First, independent statutory authorities are tasked with reviewing clinical and epidemiological evidence and providing advice to governments about the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of treatments and technologies—for example, the UK's National Institute”

In the paper

“Throughout modern history, law has played a major role in reducing infectious diseases through national public health laws and regulatory frameworks, international legal agreements, and governance reforms.”

In the paper

“HIAs dynamically improve health and wellbeing across sectors.”

In the paper

“Interventions that target inequalities are thus fundamentally linked to those that address ill health.203”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [203] source

In the paper

“By creating and implementing social norms and redistributing resources, law can create the conditions for the public's health.”

In the paper

“As of 2019, the same space is occupied by more than 200 international agencies and initiatives.191”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [191] source

In the paper

“Law could also perpetuate injustice, such as by establishing a multi-tier UHC health insurance system that provides real benefit to some people (eg, civil servants, formal sector employers) but only limited benefits to others (eg, informal sector workers).”

In the paper

“For example, the Democratic Republic of Congo deployed investigational new vaccines and therapies in response to Ebola in 2018–19, even though regulatory agencies had not yet found the vaccine and drugs to be safe and effective.”

In the paper

“This interaction shows the multidimensional nature of creating and diffusing highly effective health laws from the global level to the local and national levels, and vice versa (figure 1).”

In the paper

“These interventions have been effective because they share the characteristics previously discussed.”

In the paper

“To some extent, governance regimes are evolving in response to these new players.”

In the paper

“Large PPPs often have limited transparency and accountability because of participation of private actors.195”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [195]

In the paper

“During the 20th century, improvements in sanitation and hygiene, vector abatement, and surveillance ushered in substantial advances in infectious disease control.208”

What the sources say

• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [208]

In the paper

“Lower-income states often require financial and technical assistance to comply with treaty obligations.”

In the paper

“As observed during the Ebola crisis, this absence of a global mechanism presents a potential threat to global security.39, 99”

What the sources say

• ?Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] source
• ?Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  cites [99]

In the paper

“The final tool that can be used to assist compliance is private law dispute resolution.”

In the paper

“Poor and disadvantaged communities often have a disproportionate burden of morbidity and premature mortality, as well as the social and economic consequences of disease and injury.”

In the paper

“If not conceived with due consideration for health objectives, laws in these sectors could have powerful adverse effects on health.”