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Tracking development assistance for health and for COVID-19: a review of development assistance, government, out-of-pocket, and other private spending on health for 204 countries and territories, 1990–2050
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: The rapid spread of COVID-19 renewed the focus on how health systems across the globe are financed, especially during public health emergencies. Development assistance is an important source of health financing in many low-income countries, yet little is known about how much of this funding was disbursed for COVID-19. We aimed to put development assistance for health for COVID-19 in the context of broader trends in global health financing, and to estimate total health spending from 1995 to 2050 and development assistance for COVID-19 in 2020. METHODS: We estimated domestic health spending and development assistance for health to generate total health-sector spending estimates for 204 countries and territories. We leveraged data from the WHO Global Health Expenditure Database to produce estimates of domestic health spending. To generate estimates for development assistance for health, we relied on project-level disbursement data from the major international development agencies' online databases and annual financial statements and reports for information on income sources. To adjust our estimates for 2020 to include disbursements related to COVID-19, we extracted project data on commitments and disbursements from a broader set of databases (because not all of the data sources used to estimate the historical series extend to 2020), including the UN Office of Humanitarian Assistance Financial Tracking Service and the International Aid Transparency Initiative. We reported all the historic and future spending estimates in inflation-adjusted 2020 US$, 2020 US$ per capita, purchasing-power parity-adjusted US$ per capita, and as a proportion of gross domestic product. We used various models to generate future health spending to 2050. FINDINGS: In 2019, health spending globally reached $8·8 trillion (95% uncertainty interval [UI] 8·7-8·8) or $1132 (1119-1143) per person. Spending on health varied within and across income groups and geographical regions. Of this total, $40·4 billion (0·5%, 95% UI 0·5-0·5) was development assistance for health provided to low-income and middle-income countries, which made up 24·6% (UI 24·0-25·1) of total spending in low-income countries. We estimate that $54·8 billion in development assistance for health was disbursed in 2020. Of this, $13·7 billion was targeted toward the COVID-19 health response. $12·3 billion was newly committed and $1·4 billion was repurposed from existing health projects. $3·1 billion (22·4%) of the funds focused on country-level coordination and $2·4 billion (17·9%) was for supply chain and logistics. Only $714·4 million (7·7%) of COVID-19 development assistance for health went to Latin America, despite this region reporting 34·3% of total recorded COVID-19 deaths in low-income or middle-income countries in 2020. Spending on health is expected to rise to $1519 (1448-1591) per person in 2050, although spending across countries is expected to remain varied. INTERPRETATION: Global health spending is expected to continue to grow, but remain unequally distributed between countries. We estimate that development organisations substantially increased the amount of development assistance for health provided in 2020. Continued efforts are needed to raise sufficient resources to mitigate the pandemic for the most vulnerable, and to help curtail the pandemic for all. FUNDING: Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
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Metadata
- Authors
- Micah, A. E., Cogswell, I. E., Cunningham, B., Ezoe, S., Harle, A. C., Maddison, E. R., McCracken, D., Nomura, S., Simpson, K. E., Stutzman, H. N., Tsakalos, G., Wallace, L. E., Zhao, Y., Zende, R. R., Abbafati, C., Abdelmasseh, M., Abedi, A., Abegaz, K. H., Abhilash, E. S., Abolhassani, H., Abrigo, M. R. M., Adhikari, T. B., Afzal, S., Ahinkorah, B. O., Ahmadi, S., Ahmed, H., Ahmed, M. B., Ahmed Rashid, T., Ajami, M., Aji, B., Akalu, Y., Akunna, C. J., Al Hamad, H., Alam, K., Alanezi, F. M., Alanzi, T. M., Alemayehu, Y., Alhassan, R. K., Alinia, C., Aljunid, S. M., Almustanyir, S. A., Alvis-Guzman, N., Alvis-Zakzuk, N. J., Amini, S., Amini-Rarani, M., Amu, H., Ancuceanu, R., Andrei, C. L., Andrei, T., Angell, B., Anjomshoa, M., Antonio, C. A. T., Antony, C. M., Aqeel, M., Arabloo, J., Arab-Zozani, M., Aripov, T., Arrigo, A., Ashraf, T., Atnafu, D. D., Ausloos, M., Avila-Burgos, L., Awan, A. T., Ayano, G., Ayanore, M. A., Azari, S., Azhar, G. S., Babalola, T. K., Bahrami, M. A., Baig, A. A., Banach, M., Barati, N., Bärnighausen, T. W., Barrow, A., Basu, S., Baune, B. T., Bayati, M., Benzian, H., Berman, A. E., Bhagavathula, A. S., Bhardwaj, N., Bhardwaj, P., Bhaskar, S., Bibi, S., Bijani, A., Bodolica, V., Bragazzi, N. L., Braithwaite, D., Breitborde, N. J. K., Breusov, A. V., Briko, N. I., Busse, R., Cahuana-Hurtado, L., Callander, E. J., Cámera, L. A., Castañeda-Orjuela, C. A., Catalá-López, F., Charan, J., Chatterjee, S., Chattu, S. K., Chattu, V. K., Chen, S., Cicero, A. F. G., Dadras, O., Dahlawi, S. M. A., Dai, X., Dalal, K., Dandona, L., Dandona, R., Davitoiu, D. V., De Neve, J.-W., de Sá-Junior, A. R., Denova-Gutiérrez, E., Dhamnetiya, D., Dharmaratne, S. D., Doshmangir, L., Dube, J., Ehsani-Chimeh, E., El Sayed Zaki, M., El Tantawi, M., Eskandarieh, S., Farzadfar, F., Ferede, T. Y., Fischer, F., Foigt, N. A., Freitas, A., Friedman, S. D., Fukumoto, T., Fullman, N., Gaal, P. A., Gad, M. M., Garcia-Gordillo, M., Garg, T., Ghafourifard, M., Ghashghaee, A., Gholamian, A., Gholamrezanezhad, A., Ghozali, G., Gilani, S. A., Glăvan, I.-R., Glushkova, E. V., Goharinezhad, S., Golechha, M., Goli, S., Guha, A., Gupta, V. B., Gupta, V. K., Haakenstad, A., Haider, M. R., Hailu, A., Hamidi, S., Hanif, A., Harapan, H., Hartono, R. K., Hasaballah, A. I., Hassan, S., Hassanein, M. H., Hayat, K., Hegazy, M. I., Heidari, G., Hendrie, D., Heredia-Pi, I., Herteliu, C., Hezam, K., Holla, R., Hossain, S. J., Hosseinzadeh, M., Hostiuc, S., Huda, T. M., Hwang, B.-F., Iavicoli, I., Idrisov, B., Ilesanmi, O. S., Irvani, S. S. N., Islam, S. M. S., Ismail, N. E., Isola, G., Jahani, M. A., Jahanmehr, N., Jakovljevic, M., Janodia, M. D., Javaheri, T., Jayapal, S. K., Jayawardena, R., Jazayeri, S. B., Jha, R. P., Jonas, J. B., Joo, T., Joukar, F., Jürisson, M., Kaambwa, B., Kalhor, R., Kanchan, T., Kandel, H., Karami Matin, B., Karimi, S. E., Kassahun, G., Kayode, G. A., Kazemi Karyani, A., Keikavoosi-Arani, L., Khader, Y. S., Khajuria, H., Khalilov, R., Khammarnia, M., Khan, J., Khubchandani, J., Kianipour, N., Kim, G. R., Kim, Y. J., Kisa, A., Kisa, S., Kohler, S., Kosen, S., Koteeswaran, R., Koulmane Laxminarayana, S. L., Koyanagi, A., Krishan, K., Kumar, G. A., Kusuma, D., Lamnisos, D., Lansingh, V. C., Larsson, A. O., Lasrado, S., Le, L. K. D., Lee, S. W. H., Lee, Y. Y., Lim, S. S., Lobo, S. W., Lozano, R., Magdy Abd El Razek, H., Magdy Abd El Razek, M., Mahdavi, M. M., Majeed, A., Makki, A., Maleki, A., Malekzadeh, R., Manda, A. L., Mansour-Ghanaei, F., Mansournia, M. A., Marrugo Arnedo, C. A., Martinez-Valle, A., Masoumi, S. Z., Maude, R. J., McKee, M., Medina-Solís, C. E., Menezes, R. G., Meretoja, A., Meretoja, T. J., Mesregah, M. K., Mestrovic, T., Milevska Kostova, N., Miller, T. R., Mini, G., Mirica, A., Mirrakhimov, E. M., Mohajer, B., Mohamed, T. A., Mohammadi, M., Mohammadian-Hafshejani, A., Mohammed, S., Moitra, M., Mokdad, A. H., Molokhia, M., Moni, M. A., Moradi, Y., Morze, J., Mousavi, S. M., Mpundu-Kaambwa, C., Muriithi, M. K., Muthupandian, S., Nagarajan, A. J., Naimzada, M. D., Nangia, V., Naqvi, A. A., Narayana, A. I., Nascimento, B. R., Naveed, M., Nayak, B. P., Nazari, J., Ndejjo, R., Negoi, I., Neupane Kandel, S., Nguyen, T. H., Nonvignon, J., Noubiap, J. J., Nwatah, V. E., Oancea, B., Ojelabi, F. A. O., Olagunju, A. T., Olakunde, B. O., Olgiati, S., Olusanya, J. O., Onwujekwe, O. E., Otoiu, A., Otstavnov, N., Otstavnov, S. S., Owolabi, M. O., Padubidri, J. R., Palladino, R., Panda-Jonas, S., Park, E.-C., Pashazadeh Kan, F., Pawar, S., Pazoki Toroudi, H., Pereira, D. M., Perianayagam, A., Pesudovs, K., Piccinelli, C., Postma, M. J., Prada, S. I., Rabiee, M., Rabiee, N., Rahim, F., Rahimi-Movaghar, V., Rahman, M. H. U., Rahman, M., Rahmani, A. M., Ram, U., Ranabhat, C. L., Ranasinghe, P., Rao, C. R., Rathi, P., Rawaf, D. L., Rawaf, S., Rawal, L., Rawassizadeh, R., Reiner Jr, R. C., Renzaho, A. M. N., Reshmi, B., Riaz, M. A., Ripon, R. K., Saad, A. M., Sahraian, M. A., Sahu, M., Salama, J. S., Salehi, S., Samy, A. M., Sanabria, J., Sanmarchi, F., Santos, J. V., Santric-Milicevic, M. M., Sathian, B., Savic, M., Saxena, D., Sayyah, M., Schwendicke, F., Senthilkumaran, S., Sepanlou, S. G., Seylani, A., Shahabi, S., Shaikh, M. A., Sheikh, A., Shetty, A., Shetty, P. H., Shibuya, K., Shrime, M. G., Shuja, K. H., Singh, J. A., Skryabin, V. Y., Skryabina, A. A., Soltani, S., Soofi, M., Spurlock, E. E., Stefan, S. C., Szerencsés, V., Szócska, M., Tabarés-Seisdedos, R., Taddele, B. W., Tefera, Y. G., Thavamani, A., Tobe-Gai, R., Topor-Madry, R., Tovani-Palone, M. R., Tran, B. X., Tudor Car, L., Ullah, A., Ullah, S., Umar, N., Undurraga, E. A., Valdez, P. R., Vasankari, T. J., Villafañe, J. H., Violante, F. S., Vlassov, V., Vo, B., Vollmer, S., Vos, T., Vu, G. T., Vu, L. G., Wamai, R. G., Werdecker, A., Woldekidan, M. A., Wubishet, B. L., Xu, G., Yaya, S., Yazdi-Feyzabadi, V., Yiğit, V., Yip, P., Yirdaw, B. W., Yonemoto, N., Younis, M. Z., Yu, C., Yunusa, I., Zahirian Moghadam, T., Zandian, H., Zastrozhin, M. S., Zastrozhina, A., Zhang, Z.-J., Ziapour, A., Zuniga, Y. M. H., Hay, S. I., Murray, C. J. L., & Dieleman, J. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Micah, Angela E
- ORCID
- Maddison, Emilie R
- Nomura, Shuhei
- Zhao, Yingxi
- Abbafati, Cristiana
- Abdelmasseh, Michael
- Abedi, Aidin
- Abegaz, Kedir Hussein
- Abolhassani, Hassan
- Abrigo, Michael R M
- Adhikari, Tara Ballav
- Afzal, Saira
- Ahinkorah, Bright Opoku
- Ahmed, Haroon
- Ahmed, Muktar Beshir
- Ajami, Marjan
- Aji, Budi
- Akalu, Yonas
- Akunna, Chisom Joyqueenet
- Alam, Khurshid
- Alanezi, Fahad Mashhour
- Alanzi, Turki M
- Alemayehu, Yosef
- Alhassan, Robert Kaba
- Alinia, Cyrus
- Aljunid, Syed Mohamed
- Almustanyir, Sami Almustanyir
- Alvis-Zakzuk, Nelson J
- Amu, Hubert
- Ancuceanu, Robert
- Andrei, Tudorel
- Angell, Blake
- Antonio, Carl Abelardo T
- Aqeel, Muhammad
- Arabloo, Jalal
- Aripov, Timur
- Arrigo, Alessandro
- Ashraf, Tahira
- Atnafu, Desta Debalkie
- Ausloos, Marcel
- Awan, Asma Tahir
- Ayano, Getinet
- Ayanore, Martin Amogre
- Azari, Samad
- Azhar, Gulrez Shah
- Babalola, Tesleem Kayode
- Bahrami, Mohammad Amin
- Baig, Atif Amin
- Banach, Maciej
- Barati, Nastaran
- Bärnighausen, Till Winfried
- Barrow, Amadou
- Basu, Sanjay
- Bayati, Mohsen
- Benzian, Habib
- Berman, Adam E
- Bhagavathula, Akshaya Srikanth
- Bhardwaj, Nikha
- Bhardwaj, Pankaj
- Bhaskar, Sonu
- Bibi, Sadia
- Bijani, Ali
- Bragazzi, Nicola Luigi
- Braithwaite, Dejana
- Breitborde, Nicholas J K
- Briko, Nikolay Ivanovich
- Busse, Reinhard
- Cahuana-Hurtado, Lucero
- Callander, Emily Joy
- Cámera, Luis Alberto
- Castañeda-Orjuela, Carlos A
- Catalá-López, Ferrán
- Charan, Jaykaran
- Chatterjee, Souranshu
- Chattu, Soosanna Kumary
- Chattu, Vijay Kumar
- Chen, Simiao
- Cicero, Arrigo Francesco Giuseppe
- Dadras, Omid
- Dahlawi, Saad M A
- Dai, Xiaochen
- Dalal, Koustuv
- Dandona, Lalit
- Dandona, Rakhi
- Dhamnetiya, Deepak
- Dharmaratne, Samath Dhamminda
- Doshmangir, Leila
- Dube, John
- Eskandarieh, Sharareh
- Farzadfar, Farshad
- Fischer, Florian
- Foigt, Nataliya A
- Freitas, Alberto
- Friedman, Sara D
- Fukumoto, Takeshi
- Fullman, Nancy
- Gad, Mohamed M
- Garg, Tushar
- Ghafourifard, Mansour
- Ghashghaee, Ahmad
- Gholamian, Asadollah
- Gholamrezanezhad, Ali
- Ghozali, Ghozali
- Gilani, Syed Amir
- Glushkova, Ekaterina Vladimirovna
- Goharinezhad, Salime
- Golechha, Mahaveer
- Goli, Srinivas
- Guha, Avirup
- Gupta, Veer Bala
- Gupta, Vivek Kumar
- Haakenstad, Annie
- Haider, Mohammad Rifat
- Hailu, Alemayehu
- Hamidi, Samer
- Hanif, Asif
- Harapan, Harapan
- Hartono, Risky Kusuma
- Hasaballah, Ahmed I
- Hayat, Khezar
- Hegazy, Mohamed I
- Heidari, Golnaz
- Hendrie, Delia
- Heredia-Pi, Ileana
- Hezam, Kamal
- Holla, Ramesh
- Hossain, Sheikh Jamal
- Hosseinzadeh, Mehdi
- Hostiuc, Sorin
- Huda, Tanvir M
- Hwang, Bing-Fang
- Iavicoli, Ivo
- Idrisov, Bulat
- Ilesanmi, Olayinka Stephen
- Irvani, Seyed Sina Naghibi
- Islam, Sheikh Mohammed Shariful
- Ismail, Nahlah Elkudssiah
- Isola, Gaetano
- Jahanmehr, Nader
- Janodia, Manthan Dilipkumar
- Javaheri, Tahereh
- Jayapal, Sathish Kumar
- Jayawardena, Ranil
- Jazayeri, Seyed Behzad
- Jha, Ravi Prakash
- Jürisson, Mikk
- Kaambwa, Billingsley
- Kalhor, Rohollah
- Kanchan, Tanuj
- Kandel, Himal
- Karimi, Salah Eddin
- Kassahun, Getinet
- Kayode, Gbenga A
- Keikavoosi-Arani, Leila
- Khader, Yousef Saleh
- Khajuria, Himanshu
- Khalilov, Rovshan
- Khammarnia, Mohammad
- Khan, Junaid
- Khubchandani, Jagdish
- Kim, Gyu Ri
- Kim, Yun Jin
- Kosen, Soewarta
- Koteeswaran, Rajasekaran
- Koyanagi, Ai
- Krishan, Kewal
- Kumar, G Anil
- Kusuma, Dian
- Lamnisos, Demetris
- Lansingh, Van Charles
- Lasrado, Savita
- Le, Long Khanh Dao
- Lee, Shaun Wen Huey
- Lee, Yeong Yeh
- Lim, Stephen S
- Lobo, Stany W
- Lozano, Rafael
- Majeed, Azeem
- Maleki, Afshin
- Malekzadeh, Reza
- Masoumi, Seyedeh Zahra
- Maude, Richard James
- McKee, Martin
- Menezes, Ritesh G
- Meretoja, Atte
- Meretoja, Tuomo J
- Mesregah, Mohamed Kamal
- Miller, Ted R
- Mini, GK
- Mirrakhimov, Erkin M
- Mohajer, Bahram
- Mohamed, Teroj Abdulrahman
- Mohammadi, Mokhtar
- Mohammadian-Hafshejani, Abdollah
- Mohammed, Shafiu
- Moitra, Modhurima
- Mokdad, Ali H
- Molokhia, Mariam
- Moni, Mohammad Ali
- Moradi, Yousef
- Morze, Jakub
- Mousavi, Seyyed Meysam
- Muriithi, Moses K
- Nagarajan, Ahamarshan Jayaraman
- Naimzada, Mukhammad David
- Naqvi, Atta Abbas
- Nascimento, Bruno Ramos
- Naveed, Muhammad
- Nayak, Biswa Prakash
- Nazari, Javad
- Ndejjo, Rawlance
- Nguyen, Trang Huyen
- Nonvignon, Justice
- Noubiap, Jean Jacques
- Nwatah, Vincent Ebuka
- Oancea, Bogdan
- Olagunju, Andrew T
- Olakunde, Babayemi Oluwaseun
- Olgiati, Stefano
- Olusanya, Jacob Olusegun
- Onwujekwe, Obinna E
- Otstavnov, Nikita
- Otstavnov, Stanislav S
- Owolabi, Mayowa O
- Padubidri, Jagadish Rao
- Palladino, Raffaele
- Park, Eun-Cheol
- Pawar, Shrikant
- Pereira, David M
- Perianayagam, Arokiasamy
- Pesudovs, Konrad
- Postma, Maarten J
- Prada, Sergio I
- Rabiee, Mohammad
- Rabiee, Navid
- Rahim, Fakher
- Rahman, Mohammad Hifz Ur
- Rahman, Mosiur
- Rahmani, Amir Masoud
- Ram, Usha
- Ranabhat, Chhabi Lal
- Ranasinghe, Priyanga
- Rao, Chythra R
- Rathi, Priya
- Rawaf, David Laith
- Rawaf, Salman
- Rawal, Lal
- Rawassizadeh, Reza
- Reshmi, Bhageerathy
- Ripon, Rezaul Karim
- Saad, Anas M
- Sahraian, Mohammad Ali
- Sahu, Maitreyi
- Salama, Joseph S
- Salehi, Sana
- Samy, Abdallah M
- Sanabria, Juan
- Sanmarchi, Francesco
- Santos, João Vasco
- Santric-Milicevic, Milena M
- Sathian, Brijesh
- Savic, Miloje
- Saxena, Deepak
- Sayyah, Mehdi
- Schwendicke, Falk
- Senthilkumaran, Subramanian
- Sepanlou, Sadaf G
- Shahabi, Saeed
- Sheikh, Aziz
- Shetty, Adithi
- Shibuya, Kenji
- Shrime, Mark G
- Shuja, Kanwar Hamza
- Singh, Jasvinder A
- Skryabin, Valentin Yurievich
- Skryabina, Anna Aleksandrovna
- Soltani, Shahin
- Soofi, Moslem
- Spurlock, Emma Elizabeth
- Szerencsés, Viktória
- Szócska, Miklós
- Tefera, Yonas Getaye
- Thavamani, Aravind
- Tran, Bach Xuan
- Ullah, Anayat
- Ullah, Saif
- Umar, Nasir
- Undurraga, Eduardo A
- Valdez, Pascual R
- Vasankari, Tommi Juhani
- Villafañe, Jorge Hugo
- Violante, Francesco S
- Vlassov, Vasily
- Vos, Theo
- Vu, Giang Thu
- Vu, Linh Gia
- Wamai, Richard G
- Werdecker, Andrea
- Woldekidan, Mesfin Agachew
- Wubishet, Befikadu Legesse
- Xu, Gelin
- Yaya, Sanni
- Yiğit, Vahit
- Yip, Paul
- Yirdaw, Birhanu Wubale
- Yonemoto, Naohiro
- Younis, Mustafa Z
- Yu, Chuanhua
- Yunusa, Ismaeel
- Zandian, Hamed
- Zhang, Zhi-Jiang
- Ziapour, Arash
- Hay, Simon I
- Murray, Christopher J L
- Dieleman, Joseph L
- Venue
- The Lancet
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-10
- Volume
- 398
- Issue
- 10308
- Pages
- 1317-1343
- ISSN
- 0099-5355 (ISSN-L)
- 0140-6736
- PMC
- PMC8457757
- OpenAlex
- W3199493325
- Cited by
- 162
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 30 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 4
- FWCI
- 6.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Lancet (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- DR-NTU (Nanyang Technological University) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- DSPACE System - Metalibrary (University of the Coast) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- City Research Online (City University London) (acceptedVersion)
- Research Open (London South Bank University) (acceptedVersion, cc-by)
- LSHTM Research Online (London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine) (acceptedVersion)
- OPUS - Open Publications of UTS Scholars (University of Technology Sydney) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Kocaeli Üniversitesi - AVESİS (submittedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Charles Sturt University Research Output (CRO) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Murdoch University Research Portal (submittedVersion)
- Scholar Commons (University of South Carolina) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Publications (Mid Sweden University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Own your potential (DEAKIN) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Työväentutkimus Vuosikirja (submittedVersion)
- YUHSpace (Yonsei University Medical Library) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Institutional Repositories DataBase (IRDB) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- IRIS Research product catalog (Sapienza University of Rome) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- NORA - Norwegian Open Research Archives (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- GoeScholar The Publication Server of the Georg-August-Universität Göttingen (Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Spiral (Imperial College London) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Economics, Econometrics and Finance › Economics and Econometrics › Global Health Care Issues
- Social Sciences › Development › International Development and Aid
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Healthcare Systems and Reforms
- Keywords
- health, COVID-19 pandemic, health care financing, out-of-pocket health expenditure, private health expenditure, public health emergencies, low-income countries, per capita health expenditure, development aid, health system resilience, health infrastructure, health system preparedness
- MeSH terms
- COVID-19, Developing Countries, Health Expenditures, Financing, Government, Government Programs, Humans, International Agencies, International Cooperation, Global Health, Economic Development, Gross Domestic Product, Healthcare Financing
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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