Quantifying the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on gender equality on health, social, and economic indicators: a comprehensive review of data from March, 2020, to September, 2021
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BACKGROUND: Gender is emerging as a significant factor in the social, economic, and health effects of COVID-19. However, most existing studies have focused on its direct impact on health. Here, we aimed to explore the indirect effects of COVID-19 on gender disparities globally. METHODS: We reviewed publicly available datasets with information on indicators related to vaccine hesitancy and uptake, health care services, economic and work-related concerns, education, and safety at home and in the community. We used mixed effects regression, Gaussian process regression, and bootstrapping to synthesise all data sources. We accounted for uncertainty in the underlying data and modelling process. We then used mixed effects logistic regression to explore gender gaps globally and by region. FINDINGS: Between March, 2020, and September, 2021, women were more likely to report employment loss (26·0% [95% uncertainty interval 23·8-28·8, by September, 2021) than men (20·4% [18·2-22·9], by September, 2021), as well as forgoing work to care for others (ratio of women to men: 1·8 by March, 2020, and 2·4 by September, 2021). Women and girls were 1·21 times (1·20-1·21) more likely than men and boys to report dropping out of school for reasons other than school closures. Women were also 1·23 (1·22-1·23) times more likely than men to report that gender-based violence had increased during the pandemic. By September 2021, women and men did not differ significantly in vaccine hesitancy or uptake. INTERPRETATION: The most significant gender gaps identified in our study show intensified levels of pre-existing widespread inequalities between women and men during the COVID-19 pandemic. Political and social leaders should prioritise policies that enable and encourage women to participate in the labour force and continue their education, thereby equipping and enabling them with greater ability to overcome the barriers they face. FUNDING: The Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
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The health consequences of the pandemic were unevenly distributed across demographic groups and geographical locations, which exacerbated existing socioeconomic inequities.
“The health consequences of the pandemic were unevenly distributed across demographic groups and geographical locations, which exacerbated existing socioeconomic inequities.27”
From Global incidence, prevalence, years lived with disability (YLDs), disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), and healthy life expectancy (HALE) for 371 diseases and injuries in 204 countries and territories and 811 subnational locations, 1990–2021: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2021 (2024) · cites this paper as [27]
The Discussion reports gender disparities in health-related indicators and says the pandemic’s indirect impacts differed across geographic regions. The Introduction says the pandemic tended to exacerbate existing social and economic disparities. The paper does not establish the claim’s more specific causal link—that unevenly distributed health consequences themselves exacerbated socioeconomic inequities—and notes in the Discussion that it did not focus on direct health outcomes. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredExisting gender inequalities in labour, income, personal safety, education, and food security intensified during the pandemic, with regional variations.
“existing widespread gender inequalities in terms of labour, income, personal safety, education, and food security intensified over the course of the pandemic, with important regional, national, and local variations and disparities.”
From The Lancet Commission on lessons for the future from the COVID-19 pandemic (2022) · cites this paper as [287]
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The Impact of Climate Change on Vulnerable Populations
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- Authors
- Flor, L. S., Friedman, J., Spencer, C. N., Cagney, J., Arrieta, A., Herbert, M. E., Stein, C., Mullany, E. C., Hon, J., Patwardhan, V., Barber, R. M., Collins, J. K., Hay, S. I., Lim, S. S., Lozano, R., Mokdad, A. H., Murray, C. J. L., Reiner, R. C., Sorensen, R. J. D., Haakenstad, A., Pigott, D. M., & Gakidou, E.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Corresponding author
- Flor, Luisa S
- Venue
- The Lancet
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2022-06
- Volume
- 399
- Issue
- 10344
- Pages
- 2381-2397
- ISSN
- 0099-5355 (ISSN-L)
- 0140-6736
- PMC
- PMC8890763
- OpenAlex
- W4214866420
- Cited by
- 364
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 89 · 2023: 122 · 2022: 66
- FWCI
- 13.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- The Lancet (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (2031096)
- Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Gender, Health, and Social Inequality
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender, Labor, and Family Dynamics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Modeling and Simulation › COVID-19 epidemiological studies
- Keywords
- COVID-19 pandemic, gender inequality, gender gap, job loss, women's employment, gender-based violence, school dropout, vaccine hesitancy, vaccine uptake, health care access, education of girls, economic impact of COVID-19
- MeSH terms
- Gender Equity, COVID-19, Educational Status, Employment, Female, Humans, Male, Pandemics
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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