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Cited by 759Intimate Partner and Family ViolenceCrime Patterns and InterventionsElder Abuse and Neglect

Domestic violence during the COVID-19 pandemic—evidence from a systematic review and meta-analysis

Open access
Piquero, Alex R., Jennings, Wesley G., Jemison, Erin, Kaukinen, Catherine, Knaul, Felicia Marie·2021·Journal of Criminal Justice
DOI 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101806PMC PMC9582712
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Abstract

Purpose The aim of this review was to estimate the effect of COVID-19-related restrictions (i.e., stay at home orders, lockdown orders) on reported incidents of domestic violence. Methods A systematic review of articles was conducted in various databases and a meta-analysis was also performed. The search was carried out based on conventional scientific standards that are outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P) and studies needed to meet certain criteria. Results Analyses were conducted with a random effects restricted maximum likelihood model. Eighteen empirical studies (and 37 estimates) that met the general inclusion criteria were used. Results showed that most study estimates were indicative of an increase in domestic violence post-lockdowns. The overall mean effect size was 0.66 (CI: 0.08–1.24). The effects were stronger when only US studies were considered. Conclusion Incidents of domestic violence increased in response to stay-at-home/lockdown orders, a finding that is based on several studies from different cities, states, and several countries around the world.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101806

Cites

46 of 46 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

2 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

0 of 17 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Most of the study estimates showed an increase in domestic violence after lockdowns.

    “Results showed that most study estimates were indicative of an increase in domestic violence post-lockdowns.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “29 study estimates that reported an increase in domestic violence during the post-COVID-19 pandemic's emergence and post-COVID-19-related restrictions”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
      “the results of which showed an overwhelming increase (pre-post) in reports of domestic violence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Averaging the 37 percentage changes yielded a 7.86% increase in domestic violence.

    “If we were to calculate an overall pre−/post- percentage difference, our results would indicate that the average of the 37 positive and negative %-changes amounts to a 7.86% increase in domestic violence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Official or administrative records are a valid measure of changes in domestic violence incidence.
  • Findingown data

    The systematic review found strong evidence that officially reported domestic violence rose during the COVID-19 stay-at-home and lockdown orders.

    “While this systematic review provides strong evidence of increased officially reported domestic violence as a consequence of the COVID-19 stay-at-home and lockdown orders, the exact nature and context of the increase remains unknown.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    For US studies only, averaging the 31 percentage changes yielded an 8.10% increase in domestic violence.

    “Fig. 2b reports these same results but for only the US-based studies and the result %-change in domestic violence indicates that the average of 31 positive and negative %-changes equates to an 8.10% increase in domestic violence.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Official or administrative records are a valid measure of changes in domestic violence incidence.
  • Findingreasoning

    All included studies were published in 2020 or 2021, in press/forthcoming in 2021, or in progress in 2020/2021.

    “all of the studies were either published in 2020 or 2021, in press/forthcoming in 2021, or in progress in 2020/2021 (non-peer-reviewed, unpublished manuscripts).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
  • May combine two claims. 19

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Much early work on crime changes during pandemic lockdowns used short observation windows of a few weeks or months.

    “much of the early work that has focused on crime changes in response to the pandemic-related lockdown orders relies on short windows of observations, a few weeks or months.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The included studies had wide geographic representation: 12 were US-based, and others came from Mexico, Italy, Sweden, Australia, Argentina, and India.

    “There was a wide geographic representation among the studies, with 12 studies being based in the United States”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “other study sites representing countries around the world including Mexico (de la Miyar et al., 2021), Italy (Campedelli et al., 2021), Sweden (Gerell et al., 2021), Australia (Payne & Morgan, 2020), Argentina (Perez-Vincent et al., 2020), and India (Ravindran & Shah, 2020).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    Effect sizes could be calculated for 12 studies, yielding 17 effect sizes.

    “Fig. 3a provides a forest plot illustrating the distribution of the effect sizes with their corresponding 95% confidence intervals and related weights for the 12 studies (17 effect sizes).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Of the 17 effect sizes, 15 were positive and 12 were statistically significant.

    “the majority of the effect sizes are positive (15 out of 17) and significant (12 out of 17)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The systematic search began with more than 22,000 records.

    “Beginning with over 22,000 records identified at the outset of the search”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “our initial research started with over 22,000 records identified through database searches”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The 18 studies often used short pre- and post-restriction windows of weeks or months, though many included pre-2020 data.

    “The 18 studies frequently focused on a short time frame (i.e., weeks or months) for the pre- and post-COVID-related restrictions domestic violence outcome data, although many studies included pre-COVID-related restrictions data from the prior year or years (i.e., pre-2020)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Those 18 included studies produced 37 estimates.

    “Eighteen empirical studies (and 37 estimates) that met the general inclusion criteria were used.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “According to the 37 %-change estimates available from the 18 included studies”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “These 18 studies yielded a total of 37 estimates”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Of the 37 percentage-change estimates, 8 indicated a decrease (from −0.28% to −77.0%) and 29 indicated an increase (from +0.60% to +75.0%).

    “eight of the study estimates reported a decrease in domestic violence (range = −0.28% to −77.0%) compared to the 29 study estimates that reported an increase in domestic violence during the post-COVID-19 pandemic's emergence and post-COVID-19-related restrictions (range = +0.60% to +75.0%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Official or administrative records are a valid measure of changes in domestic violence incidence.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The work relies on official records, which have various problems.

    “our work relies on official records, which suffer from a variety of problems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Official or administrative records are a valid measure of changes in domestic violence incidence.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Studies show the pandemic has affected parents and children through isolation, loneliness, and depression.

    “Research has already demonstrated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic among parents and children with respect to social isolation, loneliness, and depression.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Patrick et al. (2020) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Selection bias in police, healthcare, and other administrative datasets consistently underestimates the extent and impact of domestic violence, a finding established before the pandemic.

    “Chandan et al. (2020) note that the selection bias associated with police, healthcare, and other administrative datasets consistently underestimate the extent and impact of domestic violence, a well-established finding in research before the pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chandan et al. (2020) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many children rely on schools as their sole source of mental health care, trauma-informed support, and adequate food.

    “As Phelps and Sperry (2020) note, for many children, schools are their only option for mental health services and trauma-informed care and support—not to mention adequate nutrition.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Phelps and Sperry (2020)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The systematic search followed PRISMA-P standards.

    “This systematic search of the extant literature was carried out based on conventional scientific standards that are outlined in the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (PRISMA-P; Moher et al., 2015; Shamseer et al., 2015)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Moher et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Shamseer et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Lockdowns have brought people at high risk of violence and abuse close to their potential abuser, which may keep raising risk factors for domestic violence.

    “The stay-at-home measures have placed those most vulnerable to violence and abuse in close proximity to their potential abuser, and this may lead to a continued increase in the risk factors associated with domestic violence.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Women's unemployment during the pandemic is estimated to be four times that of men; combined with greater childcare and home-schooling duties, this will worsen the financial difficulties women face when trying to leave abusive relationships.

    “Moreover, the disproportionate impact of the pandemic on unemployment among women, which is estimated to be four times greater for women as compared to men (Sasser Modestino, 2020; Tappe, 2020), along with their increasing responsibility for childcare and home-schooling, will exacerbate the financial challenges of women trying to navigate leaving violent relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Sasser Modestino, 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tappe, 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The Begg test found no significant publication bias or small-study effects.

    “publication bias/small study effects were formally evaluated with the Begg test (Begg & Mazumdar, 1994),5 and the result from this test did not detect any significant publication bias/small study effects (Begg: z = −0.37, p = .77).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Begg & Mazumdar, 1994 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The pandemic's gender-related effects will be extensive and require ongoing research and policy focus.

    “In addition, the gendered impacts of the pandemic will be far-reaching and in need of sustained research and policy attention (Wenhma, Smith, & Morgan, 2020), especially those programs and policies that are the intersection between women and children such as income transfer programs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wenhma, Smith, & Morgan, 2020 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    If data collection and surveillance do not continue, the total burden of domestic violence during and after the pandemic cannot be estimated.

    “They conclude that without ongoing data collection and surveillance, it will not be possible to estimate the total burden of domestic violence both during and after the pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chandan et al. (2020) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The pandemic may have served as a catalyst for victims who were already experiencing abuse before the pandemic to report their experiences because violence by their previously abusive partners became more frequent and severe.

    “The pandemic may have also served as the catalyst for those who were victims prior to the pandemic to report their experiences due to the increased incidence and severity of violence by their previously abusive partners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Puerto Rico's governor declared a gender-based violence emergency, calling it a major social and public health problem made worse by economic troubles, Hurricane Maria, and the pandemic.

    “The governor of Puerto Rico recently declared a state of emergency related to gender-based violence, noting it to be a serious social and public health problem that has gotten worse as a function of the territory's economic turmoil, Hurricane Maria, and now the COVID-19 pandemic (Florido, 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Florido, 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Pandemic-related financial strain is unprecedented and likely to hit domestic violence victims and survivors disproportionately over the long term.

    “The financial stress associated with the COVID-19 pandemic has been unprecedented and is likely to disproportionately impact victims and survivors of domestic violence in the long-term.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Evidence indicates that after disasters and epidemics, women's physical and mental health-including their risk of new or worsening domestic violence-is linked to isolation, financial instability, and rising relationship and family conflict.

    “There is strong evidence to suggest that women's physical and mental health, including the risk of first-time or escalating domestic violence, is connected to the consequences of natural disasters and epidemics, including social isolation, economic instability, and increasing relationship and family conflict (Campbell & Jones, 2016; Parkinson, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Campbell & Jones, 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Parkinson, 2019 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The results rely on currently available research meeting the inclusion criteria and remain a sample of ongoing work.

    “while our results rely on the available research that met our inclusion criteria that exists at this time, it remains a sampling of the work that is being done and not yet known.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Changes in official reporting of domestic violence during the pandemic reflect both changes in the extent of victimization and victims' decisions to seek help from police or criminal justice.

    “Increased reporting to the police, emergency rooms, and other healthcare settings may be a function of an increased number of victimizations, but also an increase in the decisions by some victims to call the police and seek criminal justice interventions.”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusion and policy implications · plain
      “That is, changes in official reporting rates reflect both a change in extent of victimization experiences, but also the help-seeking decisions of those who were victims of domestic violence prior to and during the pandemic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Domestic violence effects may be greater for racialized women and children, immigrants or refugees, and households where English is not the primary language.

    “and it is certainly possible that these effects are magnified for women and children of color, immigrants or refugees, and/or households that speak a language other than English.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    One year into the pandemic, 25% of parents said their own mental health had worsened, and 14% reported worsening behavioral health in their children.

    “Research by Patrick et al. (2020) finds that in the year since the beginning of the pandemic, a quarter of parents reported worsening mental health for themselves and a 14% worsening in the behavioral health of their children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Patrick et al. (2020) source

      Not checked in the free run.

26 of 26

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The observed changes in domestic violence are attributable to COVID-19-related restrictions rather than other concurrent pandemic-related factors.

    “Incidents of domestic violence increased in response to stay-at-home/lockdown orders”
    “the evidence is strong that incidents of domestic violence increased in response to stay-at-home/lockdown orders”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Stay-at-home orders and the economic impact of the pandemic heightened factors associated with domestic violence, such as male unemployment, childcare stress, financial insecurity, and maladaptive coping.

    “Combined, the stay-at-home orders as well as the economic impact of the pandemic heightened the factors that tend to be associated with domestic violence: increased male unemployment, the stress of childcare and homeschooling, increased financial insecurity, and maladaptive coping strategies.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Official or administrative records are a valid measure of changes in domestic violence incidence.

    “the domestic violence data must have been derived from administrative/official pre-post records (i.e., not retrospective self-reports; see e.g., Hamadani et al. (2020) and Morgan and Boxall (2020)).”
    “our work relies on official records, which suffer from a variety of problems.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The effect sizes from the included studies are comparable enough to be pooled in a meta-analysis.

    “effect sizes were generated for those included studies that reported sufficient information for an effect size to be calculated”
    “The overall mean effect size generated from a random effects restricted maximum likelihood model was 0.66”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions can be treated as a single treatment for meta-analysis.

    “indicating that “the treatment” (i.e., the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic and COVID-19-related restrictions) increased domestic violence.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Factors generally linked to domestic violence—such as isolation, financial strain, marital conflict, and substance use—are and will remain more common during the pandemic.

    “but that have and will continue to be more prevalent during the COVID-19 pandemic.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many women remain at risk of new or ongoing domestic violence because they depend financially on male partners.

    “Women's economic dependence on male partners will continue to place many women at risk for new and continued domestic violence.”
7 of 7

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: z = −0.37, p = .77

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .77 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .711 (two-tailed). The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .77 · recomputed p = .711

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upz = -0.37reported p = .77 · recomputed p = .711

    “z = −0.37, p = .77”

  • Consistentz = 2.24reported p < .05 · recomputed p = .025

    “z = 2.24, p < .05”

2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Rhodes study has conflicting publication years

    Minor

    Table 1 dates the Rhodes study to 2020, while its reference entry gives 2021.

  • Perez-Vincent study has conflicting in-progress years

    Minor

    The results text counts Perez-Vincent et al. among studies in progress in 2021, whereas Table 1 labels it in progress in 2020.

  • Italy study is attributed to the Los Angeles study

    Minor

    The geographic summary identifies Campedelli et al. as the Italy study, but Table 1 places that study in Los Angeles. The table instead places Di Franco et al. in Sicily, Italy.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Campbell, 2016, An innovative response to family violence after the Canterbury earthquake events: Canterbury family violence collaboration’s achievements, successes, and challenges, Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies, 20, 89

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Piquero, A. R., Jennings, W. G., Jemison, E., Kaukinen, C., & Knaul, F. M.
Affiliations
  • University of Miami (US)
  • University of Mississippi (US)
  • Community Resources for Justice (US)
  • University of Central Florida (US)
Corresponding author
Piquero, Alex R.
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Criminal Justice
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2021-05
Volume
74
Pages
101806
ISSN
0047-2352 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101806
PMC
PMC9582712
OpenAlex
W3135751649
Semantic Scholar
c13ac6b29335ff2dcdd7b1c8c45f25fc3ea25bde
Cited by
759
References
45
Citations by year
2026: 65 · 2025: 78 · 2024: 171 · 2023: 205 · 2022: 170 · 2021: 69 · 2019: 1
FWCI
16.59
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Criminal Justice (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Crime Patterns and Interventions
  • Social Sciences › Demography › Elder Abuse and Neglect
Keywords
domestic violence, COVID-19 pandemic, lockdown, stay-at-home orders, public health restrictions, violence against women, effect size

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