Tourism, Terrorism, and Political Instability

May combine two claims.

Over six million Americans visited Europe in 1985 and seven million more were projected to go in 1986; however, 54% of them canceled their reservations to Europe due to the peak in terrorist activity.

“For example, over six million Americans visited Europe in 1985 and seven million more were projected to go in 1986; however, 54% of them canceled their reservations to Europe due to the peak in terrorist activity (D'Amore and Anuza 1986).”

• cites D'Amore and Anuza 1986Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Terrorists target tourists to achieve strategic objectives, and attacking them can provide terrorists with instrumental advantage by disrupting the industry and assuring publicity.

“Richter and Waugh suggest that terrorists target tourists to achieve strategic objectives and that attacking them can provide terrorists with instrumental advantage by disrupting the industry and assuring publicity.”

• cites Richter and Waugh 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The impact of terrorism on tourists' decisions has not been investigated extensively.

“The impact of terrorism on tourists' decisions has not been investigated extensively, however.”

May combine two claims.

Targeting tourists or the industry is quite deliberate and helps terrorists achieve several goals, including publicity, economic disruption, and ideological opposition to tourism.

“It is evident from the literature that targeting tourists or the industry is quite deliberate and helps terrorists achieve several goals (i.e., publicity, economic disruption, ideological opposition to tourism).”

May combine two claims.

The events of 1986 significantly reduced visitation to Europe; travel to several European countries fell below projections, including Greece by 30%, the United Kingdom by 68%, and former West Germany by 77%.

“The events of 1986 (which also included the Chernobyl nuclear disaster and the US military raid on Libya) significantly reduced visitation to Europe; travel to several European countries fell below projections-e.g., Greece by 30%; the United Kingdom by 68%; and former West Germany by 77% (Brady and Widdows 1988).”

• cites Brady and Widdows 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Crime can impede tourism by wielding a significant blow to the fragile nature of a destination's safe image, and the ramifications can be long-term and extremely difficult and expensive to recover from.

“Undoubtedly, crime can impede tourism by wielding a significant blow to the fragile nature of a destination's safe image.The ramifications can be long-term and extremely difficult and expensive to recover from.”

May combine two claims.

Political turmoil has lingering effects and can effectively impede travel to affected areas and create an enduring barrier to international tourism.

“Political turmoil-even though it does not always command the same level of media scrutiny-has lingering effects and can effectively impede travel to affected areas and create an enduring barrier to international tourism”

May combine two claims.

International terrorism and tourism share certain characteristics: they both cross national borders, involve citizens of different countries, and utilize travel and communications technologies.

“Paradoxically, international terrorism and tourism share certain characteristics.They both cross national borders, involve citizens of different countries, and utilize travel and communications technologies (Schlagheck 1988).”

• cites Schlagheck 1988Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Terrorist attacks on tourists cause foreign exchange receipts to decline, thereby allowing terrorists to impose indirect costs on the government and to gain political advantage over officials.

“Because this trade represents a significant economic activity, terrorist attacks on tourists cause foreign exchange receipts to decline, thereby allowing terrorists to impose indirect costs on the government and to gain political advantage over the officials (Hall and O'Sullivan 1996;Richter and Waugh 1986).”

• cites Hall and O'Sullivan 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Richter and Waugh 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Egypt experienced a 43% drop in tourism receipts as a result of terrorist attacks that began in 1992, demonstrating how terrorists can damage a country's economy.

“Egypt's 43% drop in tourism receipts as a result of terrorist attacks, which began in 1992, is sobering proof of how terrorists can damage a country's economy (Wahab 1996).”

• cites Wahab 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Terrorism clearly differs from everyday crime on the basis of political or religious motives.

“Terrorism clearly differs from everyday crime on the basis of political or religious motives.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Random terrorist activities intimidate tourists and curtail or realign tourism flows until the public's memories of the publicized incidents fade.

“Random terrorist activities intimidate tourists and curtail or realign tourism flows until the public's memories of the publicized incidents fade.”

May combine two claims.

Both political instability and terrorism impact tourism severely.

“Despite different characteristics, both political instability and terrorism impact tourism severely.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Terrorism occurs quickly and briefly and assures immediate public attention through intense and dramatic media coverage.

“Terrorism occurs quickly and briefly and assures immediate public attention through intense and dramatic media coverage.”

May combine two claims.

Tourism can inspire terrorist violence by fueling political, religious, socioeconomic, or cultural resentment and can be used as a cost-effective instrument to deliver a broader message of ideological or political opposition.

“Simply put, the literature demonstrates that tourism can be the message as well as the medium of communication initiated by terrorists.Tourism can inspire terrorist violence by fueling political, religious, socioeconomic, or cultural resentment and be used as a cost effective instrument to deliver a broader message of ideological/political opposition.”

May combine two claims.

Tourism suffers when prolonged terrorist attacks affect tourist perceptions and when terrorist organizations specifically target the industry.

“Tourism suffers when prolonged terrorist attacks affect tourist perceptions and when terrorist organizations specifically target the industry.”

May combine two claims.

For some countries, persistent terrorism tarnishes the destination's positive image and even jeopardizes its entire tourism business.

“For some countries, however, persistent terrorism tarnishes the destination's positive image and even jeopardizes its entire tourism business.”

May combine two claims.

Mediterranean countries recorded a 50% decline in bookings and Egypt alone recorded a 65% reduction in American visitors.

“Mediterranean countries recorded a 50% decline in bookings and Egypt alone recorded a 65% reduction in American visitors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Because the studies of delayed tourist reaction used secondary data, it is difficult to determine why the reaction was delayed.

“Because these studies used secondary data, it is difficult to determine why the reaction was delayed, which leaves room for speculation.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wahab's statement that when some chain of events deters tourists from visiting certain destinations, other destinations will benefit supports Mansfeld's findings.

“Wahab's statement that”

• cites Wahab 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mansfeld 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mansfeld 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wall (1996) suggests that visitors to Northern Ireland who were aware of terrorist activity still felt less threatened by it because they understood its underlying reasons.

“Echoing Tremblay's argument that tourists who are better informed about political events react less severely, Wall (1996) suggests that visitors to Northern Ireland who were quite aware of terrorist activity still felt less threatened by it because they understood its underlying reasons.”

• cites Wall 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The quote only partly states this claim.

The majority (83%) of international business travelers reported changing behaviors to more secure styles.

“Predictably, the majority (83%) reported changing behaviors to more secure styles.”

• cites Hartz 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Past international experience has only an indirect impact on future behavior.

“Similarly, Si5nmez and Graefe examined vacation decisions but found past international experience to have only an indirect impact on future behavior.”

• cites Sonmez and Graefe 1998 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Richter points out that the country's positive image was more useful to the government than actual tourism revenues.

“Richter points out that the country's positive image was more useful to the government than actual tourism revenues.”

• cites Richter 1980Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Wall (1996) found that Northern Ireland had fewer visitors than the Republic of Ireland who spent less money because they came mostly to visit friends and relatives.

“In his comparison of Northern Ireland to the Republic of Ireland-with regard to visitors' origins and numbers, tourism revenues by country of origin, and main travel purpose- Wall (1996) found that Northern Ireland had fewer visitors (than the Republic of Ireland) who spent less money because they came mostly to visit friends and relatives.”

• cites Wall 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Most international business travelers experienced restricted freedoms, increased inconvenience, and heightened anxiety levels.

“In addition to this modification, most international business travelers experienced restricted freedoms, increased inconvenience, and heightened anxiety levels.”

• cites Hartz 1989Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

During the unrest, journalists were not permitted to enter Tibet and tourists became the only source of information about the turmoil.

“During the unrest, journalists were not per-mitted to enter the country and tourists became the only source of information about the turmoil in Tibet.”

• cites Schwartz 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Business travelers' propensity for international destinations is predicted by their reluctance to change their plans in response to media coverage of terrorism and their level of previous international experience.

“According to Cook business travelers' propensity for international destinations is predicted by their reluctance to change their plans in response to media coverage of terrorism and their level of previous international experience.”

• cites Cook 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In Spain, Enders and Sandler (1991) found that after a typical international terrorist occurrence, international visitation dropped by over 140,000, but the decline began three months after the incident.

“In the case of Spain, Enders and Sandler (1991) found that after a typical international terrorist occurrence, international visitation dropped by over 140,000-but the decline began three months after the incident.”

• cites Enders and Sandler 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

During Sonmez and Graefe's study, no terrorist events were recorded; thus, the relative calm during the research process may be reflected in the results.

“However, it should be noted that during their study, no terrorist events were recorded; thus, the relative calm during the research process may be reflected in the results.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The generalization effect might explain why some tourists who perceive terrorism threat in one country tend to presume entire regions to be risky.

“The”

• cites Enders, Sadler and Parise 1992Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Mansfeld states that a country that does not take an active part in conflict is not regarded by potential tourists as a threat.

“Mansfeld states that”

• cites Mansfeld 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mansfeld 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

According to Schwartz, tourists being present alongside Tibetans when police opened fire dramatically changed the relationship between Tibetans and foreigners; foreigners became international witnesses to Chinese brutality and potential political allies.

“According to Schwartz, tourists ...being present alongside Tibetans when the police opened fire in the square in front of the police station dramatically changed the relationship between Tibetans and foreigners...foreigners were no longer just sight-seers... but international witnesses to”

• cites Schwartz 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Cross-cultural studies of risk perception have demonstrated differences not only in ranking risks but also in the magnitude and source of perceived situations.

“Cross-cultural studies of risk perception have demonstrated differences not only in ranking risks but also in the magnitude and source of perceived situations (Goszczynska, Tyszka and Slovic 1991;Mechitov and Rebrik 1990;Tiegen, Brun and Slovic 1988).”

• cites Goszczynska, Tyszka and Slovic 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Mechitov and Rebrik 1990Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Tiegen, Brun and Slovic 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Terrorist activities at one destination increase tourists' perceived risks and the cost of the experience, which results in substitution with a destination perceived as safe.

“Therefore, terrorist activities at one destination increase tourists' perceived risks (and the cost of the experience) which then results in substitution with a destination perceived as safe (Enders and Sandler 1991;Enders, Sandler and Parise 1992;Gu and Martin 1992).”

• cites Enders and Sandler 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Enders, Sandler and Parise 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gu and Martin 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Tourists are rational consumers who move through the decision process by weighing utilities against costs.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Richter argues that if used skillfully, tourism can be an extremely powerful tool.

“Using a detailed analysis of the situation in the Philippines, Richter argues that if used skillfully, tourism can be an extremely powerful tool.”

• cites Richter 1980Not checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Tremblay attributed the finding that terrorism did not significantly impact receipts from European tourists to European tourists being better informed about political events in Europe and able to control destinations and timing.

“The study attributed its findings-that terrorism did not significantly impact receipts from European tourists-to the fact that they may be better informed about political events in Europe and are able to control their destinations and timing according to regions of high or low terroristic probabilities.”

• cites Tremblay 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to the Gambian government, the FCO's travel advice was a political decision aimed at putting pressure on the military regime, in effect an unofficial trade embargo.

“According to the Gambian government, the FC0's travel advice was”

• cites Sharpley and Sharpley 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Tourist arrivals to neighboring Zambia dropped drastically, and the country was unable to record arrivals between 1967 and 1969, which in turn caused ground operators to withdraw tourism services.

“Tourist arrivals to neighboring Zambia dropped drastically (the country was unable to record arrivals between 1967 and 1969) which in turn caused ground operators to withdraw tourism services.”

• cites Teye 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Scott stressed the potential for long-term damage: whereas a natural disaster creates havoc and passes, a political crisis may last for days, months, or even years, totally destroying the fragile concept of image for a developing tourism industry.

“Referring to political problems, Scott effectively stressed the potential for long-term damage:”

• cites Scott 1988Not checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Negative images of China translated into declining hotel occupancy rates and lost tourism revenues.

“The negative images of China translated into declining hotel occupancy rates and lost tourism revenues.”

• cites Hall and O'Sullivan 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Teye also argues that overall tourism development suffers in the long term when a country's image is damaged by negative media coverage and travel advisories and when foreign investors lose interest in the country experiencing political upheavals.

“Teye also argues that overall tourism development suffers in the long term when a country's image is damaged (by negative media coverage and travel advisories) and when foreign investors lose interest in the country experiencing political upheavals.”

• cites Teye 1988 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Pitts underscores an interesting change in tourist perceptions: many travelers were more afraid of the Mexican military and their checkpoints than they were of the Zapatista insurgents during the first six months of the uprising.

“Pitts (1996:226) underscores an interesting change in tourist perceptions in stating that”

• cites Pitts 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Smith explains the strange link between tourism and war by comparing the two as social processes that are inseparable from underlying and diverse cultural threads of group values, sanctions, beliefs and behaviors.

“Smith explains the strange link between tourism and war by comparing the two as”

• cites Smith 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wahab describes war spotters as risk takers in search of excitement.

“Wahab (1995:90) describes these”

• cites Wahab 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The literature demonstrates that governments can and do exert political pressure through tourism and use it as a promotional vehicle to convey a positive image or as a sanction against others.

“The literature demonstrates that governments can and do exert political pressure through tourism and use it as a promotional vehicle to convey a positive image or as a sanction against others.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Slovenia's recovery from the Balkan war has been much slower than China's tourism rebound.

“Understandably, Slovenia's recovery from the Balkan war has been much slower than China's tourism rebound.”

May combine two claims.

Although a 55% increase in foreign visitation was recorded in 1991 and 48% in 1992, the memory of the Tiananmen Square incident remains.

“Although a 55% increase in foreign visitation was recorded in 1991 and 48% in 1992, the memory remains (Hall and O'Sullivan 1996).”

• cites Hall and O'Sullivan 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

War is a negative influence on tourism demand (tourism under war) and diverts tourist flows to safer regions.

“First and most obviously, war is a negative influence on tourism demand (tourism under war) and diverts tourist flows to safer regions (Bar-On 1996;Hall and O'Sullivan 1996;Mansfeld 1995Mansfeld , 1996;;Mihalie' 1996;Richter 1980;Teye 1986Teye , 1988)).”

• cites Bar-On 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hall and O'Sullivan 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Mansfeld 1995Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The Gambia's economic and social conditions quickly worsened in a domino effect: British and Scandinavian tour operators pulled out, arrivals fell, hotels closed, and tourism related jobs were lost.

“The country's economic and social conditions quickly worsened in a domino effect: British and Scandinavian tour operators pulled out, arrivals fell, hotels closed, and tourism related jobs were lost.”

• cites Sharpley and Sharpley 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

In the Gambia, when the politically stable West African country experienced a bloodless coup, the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office issued several subsequent and stringent travel warnings against the Gambia.

“In the case of the Gambia, when the politically stable West African country (from 1965-94) experienced a bloodless coup, The Travel Advice Unit of the British Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) issued several subsequent and stringent travel warnings against the Gambia.”

• cites Sharpley and Sharpley 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Sharpley and Sharpley (1995) allege that by using travel advisories, governments of tourism generating countries can influence the flow of tourists in order to wield political power over countries dependent on this trade.

“They allege that by using travel advisories, governments of tourism generating countries can influence the flow of tourists in order to wield political power over countries dependent on this trade.”

• cites Sharpley and Sharpley 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

A new tourist type was detected in San Cristobal, whom Pitts refers to as conflict or war tourists; these tourists were interested in becoming a part of the action and in seeing what was happening.

“A new tourist type was detected in San Cristobal, whom Pitts refers to as”

• cites Pitts 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Regardless of whether risks are real or perceived, Teye's (1986) study clearly shows that the impact of political conflict reverberates to its surroundings and this ripple effect extends to multiple tourism interests over what could be a lengthy period of time.

“Regardless of whether risks are real or perceived, Teye's (1986) study clearly shows that the impact of political conflict reverberates to its surroundings and this ripple effect extends to multiple tourism interests over what could be a lengthy period of time.”

• cites Teye 1986 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

During the Persian Gulf War, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates experienced a sharp drop in tourist arrivals even though they were not all equally affected.

“During the Persian Gulf War, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Turkey, and the United Arab Emirates experienced a sharp drop in tourist arrivals even though they were not all equally affected (Hollier 1991;WTO 1991).”

• cites Hollier 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites WTO 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Other types drawn to a warring region include members of the media, human rights activists, and refugees (war tourists).

“Other types drawn to a warring region include members of the media, human rights activists, and refugees (war tourists) (Pitts 1996).”

• cites Pitts 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

It appears that a variety of political problems have comparable impacts on tourism: destination image is damaged, visitation suffers, revenues are lost, and development plans are shelved.

“It appears that a variety of political problems have comparable impacts on tourism: destination image is damaged, visitation suffers, revenues are lost, and development plans are shelved.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

These conflict tourists transformed Chiapas from an ethnic tourism product to one offering the experience of conflict and thrill of political violence.

“They also transformed Chiapas from an ethnic tourism product to one offering the experience of conflict and”

• cites Pitts 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The US tourism industry experienced serious problems in business as well as inbound-outbound international tourism during the Persian Gulf War.

“The US tourism industry experienced serious problems in business as well as inbound-outbound international tourism (US House of Representatives 1991; WTO 1991).”

• cites US House of Representatives 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites WTO 1991Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The 1991 Persian Gulf War and the 1991-96 Bosnia-Herzegovina War were confined to very specific geographic areas, but these wars symbolized political unrest for their entire regions.

“The 1991 Persian Gulf War and the 1991-96 Bosnia-Herzegovina War were confined to very specific geographic areas.Still, these wars symbolized political unrest for their entire regions.”

May combine two claims.

Slovenia may be as safe and calm as any peaceful country; however, the images associated with her neighbors can linger long after the war has ended.

“Slovenia may be as safe and calm as any peaceful country; however, the images associated with her neighbors can linger long after the war has ended.”

May combine two claims.

The statement that political crises can cause long-term damage is especially true for occurrences that receive global media coverage and was aptly demonstrated by China's 1989 Tiananmen Square incident.

“This statement is especially true for occurrences that receive global media coverage and was aptly demonstrated by China's 1989 Tiananmen Square incident.”

May combine two claims.

In the unique case of Tibet, tourism enabled the host and guest to share tragic experiences, resulting in the visitors' willingness and ability to assist Tibetans through mutual trust.

“In the unique case of Tibet, tourism enabled the host and guest to share tragic experiences-an opportunity they would not have had otherwise-resulting, in the visitors' willingness and ability to assist Tibetans through mutual trust.”

• cites Schwartz 1991 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Terrorist groups can hope that capturing the media agenda for days or weeks will increase their profile, amplify their message, enhance their moral legitimacy, and improve their organizational effectiveness.

“By capturing the media agenda for days or weeks, such groups can hope to (a) increase their profile and amplify their message; (b) enhance their relative moral legitimacy; and (c) improve their organizational effectiveness”

• cites Weimann and Winn 1994:143Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Witt and Moore articulate the need for more attention to overcome negative images of a destination caused by terrorism.

“They articulate the need for more attention to”

• cites Witt and Moore 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

An extensive and insightful analysis of three separate terrorism-related data sets leads Weimann and Winn to conclude that a symbiotic relationship exists between terrorists and journalists.

“An extensive and insightful analysis of three separate terrorism-related data sets (chronology of terrorist events between 1968 and 1986 developed by the RAND Corporation; news coverage of ABC, CBS, and NBC television networks from the Vanderbilt Archives; terrorism-related content from nine inter-national newspapers of the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, France, Germany, Israel, Egypt,”

• cites Weimann and Winn 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The media's power to actually change preexisting attitudes is somewhat questioned, but Weimann and Winn defend its ability to impact attitudes that have not been fully formed.

“The media's power to actually change preexisting attitudes is somewhat questioned, but Weimann and Winn defend its ability to impact attitudes that have not been fully formed.”

• cites Weimann and Winn 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Destination image is often the first casualty of violence.

“Destination image-a recurring reference in this paper-in particular, is one aspect of tourism which demands crisis management and recovery marketing, because it is often the first casualty of violence.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The mass media, willingly or unwittingly, act as spokesmen and transmitters of terrorists' messages, making terrorist deeds known to a world audience.

“The mass media willingly or unwittingly are the spokesmen of the terrorists, the transmitters of the terroristic message, the instrument through which terroristic deeds with all their excitement, drama and significance become known to a world audience”

• cites Weimann and Winn 1994:111Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Despite global political threats, the recent history of international tourism indicates that this phenomenon will be an enduring human activity.

“Despite global political threats, the recent history of international tourism indicates that this phenomenon will be an enduring human activity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An earlier study examined print media coverage of events in the Republic of Ireland by focusing on vocabulary use.

“An earlier study examined print media coverage of events in the Republic of Ireland by focusing on vocabulary use (Ehemann 1977).”

• cites Ehemann 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Negative media coverage can impact attitude formation quite easily.

“Negative media coverage can impact attitude formation quite easily.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Terrorism is an ideal subject for broadcasting, and broadcast media gives terrorists an instrument with which to voice themselves.

“Judging from these conditions, among others, terrorism appears to be an ideal subject for broadcasting; in turn, the broadcast media gives terrorists the ultimate instrument with which to voice themselves.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The author cites Brookfield's (1969) classification of individuals' perceived environment by types of information they receive: daily experience (clear and accurate); shadow zone (occasional or secondary experience beyond individual's immediate domain); and outer field (dependent on secondary information sources).

“The author cites Brookfield's (1969) classification of individuals' perceived environment by types of information they receive: daily experience (clear and accurate); shadow zone (occasional or secondary experience beyond individual's immediate domain); and outer field (dependent on secondary information sources).”

• cites Brookfield 1969Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The violence of war is believed to differ from that of terrorism or crime because of its penetrating societal involvement and because terrorist or criminal violence usually ends quickly and without leaving a heritage to become permanent tourist markers.

“The violence of war is believed to differ from that of terrorism or crime, according to Smith (1976)”

• cites Smith 1976Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Broadcast media, especially television, provides the perfect stage for the riveting performance of terrorist incidents.

“Broadcast media (especially television) provides the perfect stage for the riveting performance of terrorist incidents.”

• cites Weimann and Winn 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Weimann and Winn's book posits that terrorism is both a symbolic event and a performance that is staged for the benefit of media attention.

“Their book, The Theater of Terror: Mass Media and International Terrorism (1994), posits that terrorism is both a symbolic event and a performance that is staged for the benefit of media attention.”

• cites Weimann and Winn 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

According to Mihalie, when a war ends it becomes part of the historical memory of a certain destination and this memory becomes a tourist attraction; the recent emergence of Vietnam as a tourist destination is a testimony to this statement.

“According to Mihalie”

• cites Mihalie 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Society and destinations that suffer negative images from media coverage of terrorism are losers.

“The losers include society as well as those destinations which suffer as a result of the negative images such coverage spawns.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Weimann and Winn (1994) underscore the impact of mass media on public perceptions.

“In their examination of the mutual reliance between mass media and terrorists, Weimann and Winn (1994) underscore the impact of mass media on public perceptions.”

• cites Weimann and Winn 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Smith suggests that war gives special meaning and memory to places and events that link warfare to tourism and adds that memorabilia of warfare and allied products probably constitutes the largest single category of tourist attractions in the world.

“She suggests that war gives special meaning and memory to places and events that link warfare to tourism and adds”

• cites Smith 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ehemann's statement that behavior is geared to the perceived world, however distorted it may be, alludes to the power of mass media over public perception and the fact that perceptions represent reality for most individuals.

“Ehemann's statement”

• cites Ehemann 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

Witt and Moore investigated whether promoting special events created enough tourism interest to outweigh Northern Ireland's negative external image.

“In a study of negative image caused by civil unrest and terrorism, Witt and Moore investigated whether promoting special events created enough tourism interest to outweigh Northern Ireland's negative external image.”

• cites Witt and Moore 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Images are believed to develop on two levels: organic (formed internally as a result of actual experience or visitation) and induced (formed from externally received and processed information such as from advertisements, publicity, news reports, or input from acquaintances).

“Images are believed to develop on two levels: organic (formed internally as a result of actual experience or visitation) and induced (formed from externally received and processed information such as from advertisements, publicity, news reports, or input from acquaintances) (Gartner 1989;Gunn 1972).”

• cites Gartner 1989 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gunn 1972Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Oddly and despite different motives, the media and terrorists converge to aid each other in the effort to communicate with the audience; the media achieves higher ratings and terrorists achieve their goal of publicity.

“Oddly and despite different motives, the media and terrorists converge to aid each other in the effort to communicate with the audience; the media achieves higher ratings and terrorists achieve their goal of publicity.”

• cites Weimann and Winn 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ehemann objects to value-laden statements used by print media which can convey a value judgment about a destination and which can potentially contribute to a negative evaluation of that destination.

“Ehemann (1977) objects to value-laden statements (i.e.,”

• cites Ehemann 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Butler (1990) discusses the influence of three types of media (oral, literary, visual) on image formation from a historical perspective but does not delve into the effects of mass media on destination image.

“Butler (1990) discusses the influence of three types of media (oral, literary, visual) on image formation from a historical perspective but does not delve into the effects of mass media on destination image.”

• cites Butler 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Even though the importance of image to marketing is well known, the impact of terrorism or political violence on destination image and the link between it and mass media have received scant research attention.

“Even though the importance of image to marketing is well known, the impact of terrorism or political violence on destination image (Witt and Moore 1992) and the link between it and mass media (Butler 1990;Ehemann 1977) have received scant research attention.”

• cites Witt and Moore 1992 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Butler 1990 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Ehemann 1977 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The statement about media coverage of terrorist events can also be applied to attitudes about destinations, on which the public is not well informed.

“This statement refers to attitudes about terrorists and their aims but can also be applied to attitudes about destinations, on which the public is not well informed.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The public is not well informed about destinations.

May combine two claims.

Destinations with erratic politics or histories of ethnic or socioeconomic troubles have little hope of developing strong and successful tourism; the same can be said for countries with neighbors in turmoil.

“Destinations with erratic politics or histories of ethnic or socioeconomic troubles have little hope of developing strong and successful tourism; the same can be said for countries with neighbors in turmoil (Bar-On 1996;Hall and O'Sullivan 1996;Richter 1980;Teye 1986Teye , 1988)).”

• cites Bar-On 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Hall and O'Sullivan 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Richter 1980Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Few nations afflicted with terrorism or political turmoil can afford to give up their tourism earnings.

“few nations around the world afflicted with terrorism or political turmoil can afford to give up their tourism earnings.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Fully controlling terrorism is difficult or impossible.

“It may be difficult-even impossible-to fully control terrorism”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Researchers unanimously agree that political violence in any form is detrimental to destination image and, as a result, to tourist flows.

“Aside from negligible differences, researchers unanimously agree in principle that political violence in any form is detrimental to destination image and, as a result, to tourist flows.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

An independent international organization disseminating impartial travel information may preclude serious damage to the tourism industry of a destination unaffected by political violence but declared dangerous by other countries.

“The formation of such an entity may actually preclude serious damage to the tourism industry of a destination unaffected by political violence but declared dangerous by other countries”

• cites Sharpley and Sharpley 1995 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Accepting the permanence of terrorism and regional political problems is a requisite to managing them.

“Accepting the permanence of terrorism and regional political problems is a requisite to managing them.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Little attention has been paid to how political violence influences destination image, how mass media contributes to destination image, and how image can be repaired after a negative occurrence.

“Even though a wide body of literature exists on destination image, little attention has been paid to such topics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Viewing terrorism as a crisis allows the tourism industry's energy and interest to be channeled into managing it.

“If terrorism can be viewed as a crisis by the industry, its energy and interest can be effectively channeled into managing it.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

No destination is immune to negative occurrences.

“no destination is immune to negative occurrences”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Each crisis situation is different and difficult to resolve with simple formulas.

“Furthermore, each crisis situation is different and difficult to resolve with simple formulas.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Crisis situations that threaten tourist activity often begin with short-lived disasters, whether natural or human-caused.

“It can be inferred then that crisis situations which threaten tourist activity, often begin with short-lived disasters, whether natural or human-caused.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Egyptian police adopted preventive and proactive measures that eventually helped them find and arrest terrorist leaders.

“Egyptian police adopted preventive and proactive measures that eventually helped them find and arrest terrorist leaders.”

• cites Wahab 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Responsibility for dealing with terrorism and its impacts on the tourism industry is shared by governments, journalists, and international organizations.

“The responsibility of dealing with terrorism and its impacts on the tourism industry is shared by governments, journalists, and international organizations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Egypt hosted a sequence of international special events to draw world and industry attention away from terrorism.

“To create positive publicity, Egypt hosted a sequence of international special events to draw world and industry attention away from the terrorism.”

• cites Wahab 1996Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Having a crisis plan saves valuable time, energy, and other resources when a destination faces a crisis.

“Having such a blueprint merely promises to save valuable time, energy, and other resources when a destination is faced with a crisis.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Destinations plagued by terrorism or political turmoil, especially those economically dependent on tourism, have little choice but to deal with the issue as a crisis badly in need of management.

“Especially if their economic stability depends on tourism, they have little choice but to deal with the issue as a crisis badly in need of management.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Many studies on arrivals, expenditures, and re-alignment of travel flows do little more than support each other's conclusion that terrorism results in economic loss.

“studies focusing primarily on arrivals, expenditures, and re-alignment of travel flows are useful, but too many of them do little more than support each other in the conclusion that terrorism results in economic loss.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

A considerable and largely cohesive body of literature on terrorism and political instability in tourism exists across disciplines.

“A considerable and largely cohesive body of literature emerges from the contributions of scholars from different disciplines (Table 2).”

• cites Table 2Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Additional research on terrorism and tourism crisis management is urgently needed.

“the need for additional research is both urgent and clear.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Most crises, especially those resulting from terrorism or political problems, are difficult to prevent because of their unpredictable nature.

“Most crises are difficult to prevent, due to their unpredictable nature-especially those resulting from terrorism or political problems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Despite available information, tourists are largely on their own and must make their own decisions.

“Based on the availability and the applicability of information, tourists are pretty much on their own; individuals must make their own decisions and proceed accordingly.”