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Schizophrenia as the price that Homo sapiens pays for language: a resolution of the central paradox in the origin of the species
Abstract
The central paradox of schizophrenia is that the condition, apparently genetic in origin, persists in spite of a substantial fecundity disadvantage. The hypothesis is proposed that the predisposition to schizophrenia is a component of Homo sapiens-specific variation associated with the capacity for language. A genetic change (the 'speciation event', predicted to be related to the Xq21.3 to Yp chromosomal transposition that separates Homo sapiens from the great apes) allowed the hemispheres to develop with a 'cerebral torque', reflected particularly in association cortex, from right frontal to left occipital. Variations in the dimension of lateralization are associated with differences in the rate at which verbal and non-verbal ability develops. The nuclear symptoms of schizophrenia can be understood as a failure to establish dominance for a key component - the phonological sequence - of language in one hemisphere, with consequent disruption of the mechanism of 'indexicality' that allows the speaker to distinguish his thoughts from the speech output that he generates and the speech input that he receives and decodes from others.
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“Notably, it was proposed that the higher cognitive capacities in humans were acquired at the cost of increased susceptibility to mental disease17–19.”
From Distinct selective forces and Neanderthal introgression shaped genetic diversity at genes involved in neurodevelopmental disorders (2017) · cites this paper as [17]
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BackgroundErkoreka, L., Ozamiz-Etxebarria, N., Ruiz, O., & Ballesteros, J. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17114137 · Cited by 10
“Apart from being the main means of assessment, language disturbances are core symptoms of psychiatric conditions [2].”
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“Specifically, according to Crow’s hypothesis, the nuclear symptoms of psychoses represent a failure in establishing the left hemisphere dominance for language, which is one of the most lateralized dimension (most commonly to the left hemisphere) [7].”
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Panicheva, P., & Litvinova, T. (2019) · Conference of Open Innovations Association (FRUCT) · doi:10.23919/fruct48121.2019.8981535 · Cited by 11
“Crow has argued that schizophrenia is a result of brain changes attributed to language evolution [35].”
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“…likely the reverse is true in left handed individuals) give rise to lack of insight related to “wishes” and “fears”, which may lead to delusional thinking (e.g., grandiosity and persecutory delusions, respectively) while perceptual distortions may be perceived as hallucinations in psychosis [92].”
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“It is to be acknowledged, nevertheless, that possible delays in language acquisition in at-risk populations might be an early prodrome symptom of the disorder [10, 85, 86], underlying, thus, drastic deterioration of linguistic abilities as the individual gets older [34].”
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Bhati, M. T. (2005) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-005-0084-6 · Cited by 8
“One author found a statistically significant, increased risk of developing schizophrenia in a large sample of children who were prospectively tested for left or right brain preference using measures of hand skill [ 34 ].”
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Pienkos, E., & Sass, L. A. (2016) · Giornale italiano di psicopatologia/Journal of psychopathology/Italian journal of psychopathology · Cited by 8
Autistic Spectrum Disorder in Prehistory
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“Moreover Crow (1997; 2000) has presented a convincing case for schizophrenia as a disadvantageous byproduct of the evolution of language.”
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“…who proposed the so-called evolutionary hypothesis of schizophrenia that suggests that the disease is a consequence of human evolution: the higher cognitive abilities of modern-day humans, including language, may predispose to psychiatric illnesses such as schizophrenia (Crow, 2008, 2000, 1997).”
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Chakrabarty, M., Bhattacharya, K., Chatterjee, G., Biswas, A., & Ghosal, M. K. (2022) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1111/1460-6984.12778 · Cited by 7
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“Recently, the neurobiological continuum across psychiatric disorders has been interpreted by an evolutionary hypothesis, suggesting these mental illnesses are costly by-products of human evolution [27].”
Tonna, M. (2024) · Culture Medicine and Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s11013-024-09873-5 · Cited by 8
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“The torque forms one of the bases of asymmetry of the brain closely associated with language development [1].”
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“This finding is in line with Crow’s theory on the role of altered language lateralization at the origin of schizophrenia [35,36] and, more generally, functional psychoses [37].”
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Wang, G.-Z., & Konopka, G. (2013) · Transcription · doi:10.4161/trns.24885 · Cited by 7
Vision, language and a protective mechanism towards psychosis
Leivada, E. (2016) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2016.02.024 · Cited by 7
“The language system is a crucial component of human cognition associated with schizophrenia, schizophrenia has been described by Crow as the price Homo sapiens pays for language [25].”
Baldwin, P. A., Hennessy, R. J., Morgan, M. G., Quinn, J. F., Scully, P. J., & Waddington, J. L. (2004) · Steinkopff eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-7985-1953-4_26 · Cited by 7
Homo loquens: Evolution of cerebral functions and language
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“Some part of the scientific community claims at present that all this is based on a mutation resulting in the appearance of the "language gene” and hence, in separation of the human species; the price for the language turns out to be schizophrenic disturbances also based on disbalance of hemispheric functions [48-51].”
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van der Ven, E. (2016) · Research Publications (Maastricht University) · doi:10.26481/dis.20160422ev · Cited by 7
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“Accordingly, the evolutionary hypothesis of SZ suggests that the disorder emerged as a costly trade-off in the evolution of the ontogenetic mechanisms guiding human-speci fi c neurodevelopment and sustaining complex cognitive abilities 27 – 30 .”
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“Tim Crow (2000) argued that the genes responsible for language gave rise to schizophrenia.”
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“Moreover, Crow has proposed (7) that “schizophrenia is the price Homo Sapiens pays for language”.”
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“…may have also rendered the human brain vulnerable to dysfunction, as psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders are highl y prevalent in humans and occur at a scale not seen in other species (Crow 2000; Finch and Austad 2015; Doan et al.2016; Van Den Heuvel et al.2019; Pattabi-raman et al.2020).”
Morbid and Insight Poetry: A Glimpse at Schizophrenia through the Window of Poetry
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“However, a recent argument suggesting schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders might originate from a single gene located in a specific region of the brain associated with language development is worth attention ( Berlim, Mattevi, Belmonte-de-Abreu, & Crow, 2003 ; Crow, 1997 , 2000 ).”
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Functional Connectivity of Language-Related Cerebellar Regions Is Reduced in Schizophrenia Patients
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“Schizophrenia has been previously referred to as “a left hemisphere disorder”.(60,61) The higher order language functions mediated by the right hemisphere are essential for accurately understanding someone’s communicative intent, and the deficits displayed by patients with schizophrenia may markedly contribute to thei…”
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“If we accept Tim Crow’s powerful assertion that psychosis is the price Homo sapiens pay for language (Crow 2000) then there shall be no requirement to bastardise the quote at all.”
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“The use of various forms of speech for this investigation was motivated by the role of left hemispherebased language processes in responsiveness to CBT for depression [55], language pathway abnormalities in psychosis [60, 61], and the earlier finding concerning the left DLPFC response associating somewhat more strongl…”
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“The presumed endophenotype concept is closely related to Crow’s theory, which explains schizophrenia on the evolutionary side: “schizophrenia is the price that homo sapiens pays for language” [3].”
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Grammatical Processing in Schizoprenia: Analysis on Sentence Structure
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“Thus, different etiological theories have been proposed over the years in an attempt to explain these findings including “excessive neuronal pruning” [64] as well as developmental alterations in brain symmetry and subsequent language function [ 65 ].”
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The Neuropsychiatry of Shamanism
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“event, enabling the species to expand into almost every ecological niche and eliminate other species in the process (Crow 2000).”
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“Crow and others (Brüne, 2004; Crow, 1997, 2000) have argued that there must be beneficial aspects to risk phenotypes that have allowed these genes to survive natural selection.”
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“The view that psychotic disorders were invariant to place effects dominated much of the psychiatric literature for the next 20 years, and was used to advance exploration of the possibility that schizophrenia was almost entirely genetic in origin [23, 24].”
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“We are reminded of the discontinuity argument of language – human uniqueness (Crow, 2000).”
BackgroundEvolutionary Clinical Psychology
Kennair, L. E. O. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-375000-6.00156-7 · Cited by 2
Mutschler, D. E. (2010) · Cited by 2
Li, J., He, J., Ren, H., Li, Z., Ma, X., Liu, Y., Ouyang, L., Li, C., Hé, Y., Tang, J., et al. (2025) · European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience · doi:10.1007/s00406-024-01955-0 · Cited by 1
Tobore, T. O. (2026) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2026.1695897 · Cited by 1
“Indeed, it has been hypothesized that human evolutionary development of language may have predisposed the brain to schizophrenia (57) and psychosis (58).”
Hemisphere fingerprinting: Identifying left and right hemispheres using functional connectivity
Day, T. K. M., Turkeltaub, P. E., Newport, E. L., & DeMarco, A. T. (2026) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag.a.1397 · Cited by 1
“…is considered to be a bioindicator of healthy development, and damage to the LN has also been hypothesized to be a root cause of schizophrenia ( Crow, 2000), in which laterality is reduced ( Agcaoglu et al., 2018; Son et al., 2017; Spironelli et al., 2023), as is the case in other conditions,…”
Human uniqueness and vulnerability to mental disorder
Abed, R., Griffin, B., & John‐Smith, P. S. (2026) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2026.10827 · Cited by 1
Ichinose, M. C., & Park, S. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815012-2.00002-x · Cited by 1
The Development of Psychopathology: Nature and Nurture
Merikangas, J. R. (2004) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.161.10.1932-a · Cited by 1
Intrinsic negative feedback as a limiting factor for the evolution of higher forms of intelligence
Arold, S. T. (2020) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.22039.1 · Cited by 1
Psychopathology from an Evolutionary Perspective
Ray, W. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108131797.033 · Cited by 1
Intrinsic negative feedback as a limiting factor for the evolution of higher forms of intelligence
Arold, S. T. (2020) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.22039.2 · Cited by 1
Rodríguez-Sánchez, J. M., Tordesillas‐Gutiérrez, D., & Crespo‐Facorro, B. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-84-458-1776-6.50024-1 · Cited by 1
Metadata
- Authors
- Crow, T.
- Affiliations
- Warneford Hospital (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Crow, T
- Venue
- Brain Research Reviews
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2000-03
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 2-3
- Pages
- 118-129
- ISSN
- 0165-0173 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2082220470
- Cited by
- 387
- References
- 95
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 15 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 14 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 4.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Brain Research Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Hemispheric Asymmetry in Neuroscience
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Social Sciences › Cultural Studies › Language and cultural evolution
- Keywords
- schizophrenia, origin of language, human, speciation events, hemispheric lateralization, association cortex, hemispheric dominance, indexicality, great apes
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Humans, Language, Schizophrenia, Hominidae
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