Intergroup Discrimination: Ingroup Love or Outgroup Hate?

“Differentiating Ingroup Love Versus Outgroup Hostility Researchers have long argued about the importance of differentiating ingroup bias as ingroup love versus outgroup hostility (Brewer, 1999, 2016).”

“Accordingly, Brewer (2017) distinguished between ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation when noting that “variations in [outcomes received by the ingroup relative to the outgroup] can be parsed (theoretically) into components due to variation in favorability toward the ingroup and variation due…”

“The main driver of this form of discrimination is a bias in favor of ingroup members (Brewer, 2017).”

“Indeed, Brewer (2017) recently noted that prejudice and discrimination are likely reciprocally related so here we aimed to assess differences in the magnitude of these associations without necessarily presuming a direction of effects.”

“In general, people are disposed to think of groups they belong to more positively than those to which they do not belong (Brewer, 2017).”

“Classifying others simultaneously as in-group and out-group members can mitigate the importance of any in-group/out-group distinction and increase trust across category boundaries (Brewer, 2017; Hewstone, 1996; see Prati et al., 2021 for a review).”

“…threat (Stephan & Stephan, 2000), identity inclusiveness (Miller et al., 2010), intergroup biases (both ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation; Brewer, 2017), collective self-esteem (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992), willingness for intergroup contact (Allport, 1954), and cross-cultural adaptation…”

“…research suggest that affiliations with in-groups (i.e., American) are generally considered positive, whereas out-group affiliation (i.e., foreign) is generally considered negative, although there can be important conceptual distinctions between in-group liking and out-group disdain (Brewer, 2017).”

“Ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation are associated with discriminatory behavior, with some research suggesting that preference for one’s ingroup may be a stronger predictor of discrimination than disdain for an outgroup (Brewer, 2017; Greenwald & Pettigrew, 2014).”

“…or its members (Dovidio et al., 2019), functions to promote positive self-regard by either demoting competing outgroups (i.e., outgroup derogation; (Hewstone et al., 2002; Tajfel & Turner, 2001)) or by reserving benefits for ingroups (i.e. ingroup favoritism; (Brewer, 2017; Hamley et al., 2020).”

“In a similar vein, Carlin and Love (2013) investigate the effect of partisanship on trust behavior. They show that partisanship biases trust behavior in favor of co-partisans.1 While there is a trade-off between the own payoff and the other’s payoff in dictator and trust games, we use a game where there is no monetary…”

“The third form of discrimination involves both mechanisms: “differential treatment in favor of the ingroup and against the outgroup” (Brewer, 2016, p. 92).”

“However, according to social identity theory, individuals tend to evaluate the ingroup more favorably than the outgroup (Brewer, 2017; Hornsey, 2008 ).”

“While some have suggested that intergroup bias is primarily driven by preferential attitudes towards one's ingroup (i.e., ingroup enhancement/favoritism; Brewer, 2017), political intergroup bias in the United States may be driven by negative behaviors/attitudes directed at outgroup members (Iyengar et al.”

“Each type of discrimination has different repercussions for democracy, as well as different implications for how to address it (Brewer, 2016).”

“Ingroup-outgroup bias is a social phenomenon in which individuals tend to exhibit differential treatment and perception of others based on their assumed social category membership [1].”

“The concept of affective polarization is rooted in social identity theory (SIT) 49,50 and self-categorization theory (SCT) 51 which posits that individuals tend to categorize the world into in-groups and out-groups 52 .”

“For social identity theory in-groups are the focus of attention, so to speak, and behaviour is expected to be driven by the desire to enhance the in-group ’ s standing (Brewer 1999, 2016).”

“31 Building on this insight, we bring in an outward perspective to understand the political consequences of COVID-19 in China and argue that the transformation of COVID-19 into a global pandemic raised the salience of Chinese people’s national identity and activated their inter-group evaluative…”

“Brewer (2017) identifies three forms of ingroup bias: Type I involves ingroup favoritism without outgroup derogation, Type II entails outgroup dero-gation without ingroup favoritism, and Type III consists of both ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation (i.e., when the outgroup is treated…”

“Referring to social distance theory (Braithwaite, 2009), motivational posture or willingness to interact positively and acknowledge authority status is divided into five categories: commitment (belief in the police legitimacy, that obeying the police is the right thing); capitulation (obedience…”

“Framing these findings within the context of intergroup relations, our results contribute to the body of literature demonstrating ingroup favoritism in the evaluation of ingroups and outgroups (Brewer, 2017; Everett et al., 2015).”

“Prejudice arises in zero-sum relations in which outgroup gains are perceived as being at the expense of an ingroup (Brewer, 2017: 92).”

“Así pues, cuando se pone de relieve la comparación, las personas tienden a favorecer su propio endogrupo y/o discriminar al exogrupo para proteger su autoconcepto positivo (Brewer, 2017).”

“Individuals living with mental health issues may experience discrimination from their own communities [88, 122, 123], therefore this should be considered in future studies.”

“This relationship was not observed for Black male trustees, which is consistent with a pattern of ingroup favoritism in this sample of White undergraduates (see Brewer, 2017).”

“47 These processes start with forming a social identity, during which individuals categorize themselves into a social group and identify with other members of that group (e.g. the self-categorization theory).”

“…biases in pain-related clinical practices (Farcas et al., 2023; Hoffmann et al., 2022; Ruben et al., 2018; Samulowitz et al., 2018; Thurston et al., 2023), i.e., their unjustified tendency to (un)favour a group of individuals over another based on their sex/gender categorisation (Brewer, 2017).”

“Human evolution favored the development of self-and ingroup-protective behavior (Brewer 2016 ; Neuberg et al. 2011 ).”

“Conversely, out-group hostility is defined as the degradation of some group that is perceived as “other” from an individual’s self-identified group (Brewer, 2017).”

“A few studies have addressed the role of cultural factors (e.g., see the special issue, van Zomeren & Louis, 2017).”

“…emerged as a manifestation of ingroup favoritism, outgroup derogation, or a combination of both (e.g. see Karpinski and Steinman 2006, De Dreu et al. 2011, Greenwald and Pettigrew 2014, Brewer 2017), a recent study by two of the present authors may provide some clues to this (Duncan, et al. 2022).”

“Additionally, in order to achieve a positive self-concept—which depends on ingroup-outgroup social comparison—people are driven towards favoring in-group and derogating groups to which they do not belong (Brewer, 2017; Gerard & Hoyt, 1974; Tajfel, 1974).”

“It is also vitally important to note that, while strong ingroup identities can correlate with outgroup bias or negativity, White racial identity and outgroup-directed preju - dice are separate phenomena (Brewer, 2017; Jardina, 2021; Jardina & Ollerenshaw, 2022).”

“From this perspective, perception of the opponent party is more vulnerable to perception bias, contributing to the asymmetry between ingroup love and outgroup hate (Brewer, 2017; Finkel et al., 2020).”

“…um endogrupo com status privilegiado são percebidos como similares entre si e como detentores de qualidades positivas, ao passo que os membros do exogrupo são percebidos como essencialmente distintos, sendo alvo de preconceito e de discriminação (Brewer, 2016; Hornsey, 2008; Tajfel & Turner, 1979).”

“The tendency for people to favour in-group members over out-group members is ubiquitous (Brewer, 2017; Brown & Pehrson, 2020; Tajfel et al., 1971).”

“In-group solidarity (“feelings in favor of”) and out-group hostility (“feelings against”), while not mutually exclusive from one another, are distinct psychological processes rooted in different underlying motivations (Brewer, 2016; Portmann & Stojanovi ć , 2022).”

“Brewer (2016) conceptualizes in-group bias as differential evaluation, affect, or treatment of in-group versus out-group members and shows that it can take three distinct forms, each corresponding to a different type of intergroup discrimination.”

“This could be done through interventions that focus on increasing the salience of similarities, rather than emphasizing the differences, in an attempt to have minorities be perceived as a part of the majority through focusing on inclusiveness (Brewer, 2016).”

“While group living allows for cooperation and improved access to resources, it also introduces the potential for conflicts and challenges in intergroup relations, such as intergroup bias [2,3].”

“Thus, there is enough evidence to also support a combination of ingroup favoritism and outgroup derogation [7,23].”

“…studies tends to fall on the side either of the prevalence of in-group favoritism over out-group derogation (Allport, 1954) or of the symmetry of those effects (Sherif & Sherif, 1953), while the empirical evidence tends to suggest the prevalence of the former (Balliet et al., 2014; Brewer, 2017).”

“…in social psychology interested in prejudice (Dovidio et al. 2019), stereotypes (Spencer, Logel, and Davies 2016), and attitude toward outgroups (Brewer 2016): in the context of sports practice, antisocial behaviors seem influenced by the social category activated in a social scene composed of…”

“Although a direct reciprocal relationship between ingroup positivity and out-group negativity is commonly presumed to exist, the empirical evidence does not lend unequivocal support to this notion (Brewer, 2017).”

“The ingroup, which can be defined as “one’s own social categories,” is perceived as more positively or “responded to more favorably than members of other social categories,” which are often defined as the outgroups (Brewer, 2017, p.90 [7]).”