The DOI matches its Crossref record; 193 of the 204 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa
Abstract
This book presents a theory to account for why and when politics revolves around one axis of social cleavage instead of another. It does so by examining the case of Zambia, where people identify themselves either as members of one of the country's seventy-three tribes or as members of one of its four principal language groups. The book accounts for the conditions under which Zambian political competition revolves around tribal differences and under which it revolves around language group differences. Drawing on a simple model of identity choice, it shows that the answer depends on whether the country operates under single-party or multi-party rule. During periods of single-party rule, tribal identities serve as the axis of electoral mobilization and self-identification; during periods of multi-party rule, broader language group identities play this role. The book thus demonstrates how formal institutional rules determine the kinds of social cleavages that matter in politics.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“In Kenya, the relatively even balance among several major ethnic groups has generated incentives for shifting ethnic coalitions, with the principal parties reorganizing across cycles to match the size requirements of presidential electoral competition.”
From THE LIMITS OF ELECTORAL COMPETITION: HOW POLITICAL OPENINGS CAN FUEL PATRONAGE AND INSTABILITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA - A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SIERRA LEONE, GHANA, AND KENYA (2026) · cites this paper as Posner's (2005)
In the citing paper
“Posner argues that ethnic identities are politically mobilized when they correspond to the size at which electoral coalitions can be efficiently constructed within the prevailing institutional rules.”
From THE LIMITS OF ELECTORAL COMPETITION: HOW POLITICAL OPENINGS CAN FUEL PATRONAGE AND INSTABILITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA - A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SIERRA LEONE, GHANA, AND KENYA (2026) · cites this paper as Posner's (2005)
In the citing paper
“In Sierra Leone, the partial north-south ethnic division has stabilized two-party competition around regional bases while generating intense competition for non-aligned swing voters through clientelist mobilization.”
From THE LIMITS OF ELECTORAL COMPETITION: HOW POLITICAL OPENINGS CAN FUEL PATRONAGE AND INSTABILITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA - A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SIERRA LEONE, GHANA, AND KENYA (2026) · cites this paper as Posner's (2005)
In the citing paper
“In Ghana, the relatively balanced two-party system and the absence of a single dominant ethnic group have generated incentives for both major parties to construct broad cross-ethnic coalitions, with programmatic differentiation serving as the basis for competition where ethnic appeals would be insufficient.”
From THE LIMITS OF ELECTORAL COMPETITION: HOW POLITICAL OPENINGS CAN FUEL PATRONAGE AND INSTABILITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA - A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SIERRA LEONE, GHANA, AND KENYA (2026) · cites this paper as Posner's (2005)
In the citing paper
“In small-scale electoral arenas, sub-ethnic identities are mobilized; in larger arenas, broader ethnolinguistic categories become salient.”
From THE LIMITS OF ELECTORAL COMPETITION: HOW POLITICAL OPENINGS CAN FUEL PATRONAGE AND INSTABILITY IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA - A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF SIERRA LEONE, GHANA, AND KENYA (2026) · cites this paper as Posner's (2005)
Citations
Cites
Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance
North, D. C. (1990) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808678 · Cited by 32,691
An Economic Theory of Democracy.
Banfield, E. C., & Downs, A. J. (1958) · Midwest Journal of Political Science · doi:10.2307/2109186 · Cited by 18,558
Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy
Stern, F., & Putnam, R. D. (1993) · Foreign Affairs · doi:10.2307/20045657 · Cited by 11,292
The clash of civilizations and the remaking of world order
(1997) · Long Range Planning · doi:10.1016/s0024-6301(97)80966-1 · Cited by 7,466
Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War
FEARON, J. D., & LAITIN, D. D. (2003) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055403000534 · Cited by 7,366
Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition.
Ericson, J., & Dahl, R. A. (1972) · American Quarterly · doi:10.2307/2711442 · Cited by 7,179
Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms
Hall, P. A., & Taylor, R. C. R. (1996) · Political Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9248.1996.tb00343.x · Cited by 6,796
Social categorization and intergroup behaviour
Tajfel, H., Billig, M. G., Bundy, R. P., & Flament, C. (1971) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2420010202 · Cited by 5,562
Sacks, H. (1995) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444328301 · Cited by 5,429
Kuper, L., & Horowitz, D. L. (1986) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2069338 · Cited by 4,891
Research works printed but not linked: 64
- Wright, 1994, One Drop of Blood, New Yorker, 25, 46
- Snelson, 1974, Educational Development in Northern Rhodesia, 1883–1945
- Throup, 1998, Multiparty Politics in Kenya: The Kenyatta and Moi State and the Triumph of the System in the 1992 Elections
- Richards, 1939, Land, Labour and Diet: An Economic Study of the Bemba Tribe
- Palmer, 1993, Towards Public Sector Reform: Final Report
- Varshney, 2002, Civic Life and Ethnic Conflict: Hindus and Muslims in India
- Okumu, 1969, The By-Election in Gem: An Assessment, East Africa Journal, 9
- Tordoff, 1974, Politics in Zambia, 10.1525/9780520320178 · DOI
- 1950–1959, Annual Reports
- Prins, 1980, The Hidden Hippopotamus: Reappraisal in African History: The Early Colonial Experience in Western Zambia
- Roberts, 1976, A History of Zambia
- 1998, Marcoeconomic Indicators
- Epstein, 1978, Ethos and Identity
- Helm, 1968, Essays on the Problem of Tribe
- Chwe, 2001, Rational Ritual: Culture, Coordination, and Common Knowledge
- Werbner, 1996, Post-colonial Identities in Africa
- Thomson, 1934, Memorandum on the Native Tribes and Tribal Areas of Northern Rhodesia
- Smith, 1979, Legislatures in Development
- Fearon, James D. 1999. “Why Ethnic Politics and ‘Pork’ Tend to Go Together.” Paper presented at the SSRC-MacArthur-sponsored conference on “Ethnic Politics and Democratic Stability,” University of Chicago, May 21–23
- Franklin, 1950, The Saucepan Special
- 1998, Killing the Vote: State Sponsored Violence and Flawed Elections in Kenya
- Annual Report on Native [African] Affairs
- Abernethy, 1969, The Political Dilemma of Popular Education
- Brelsford, 1965, The Tribes of Zambia
- Achen, 1995, Cross-Level Inference
- Cliffe, 1967, One Party Democracy
- 2002, World Development Report 2002: Building Institutions for Markets
- Turok, 1979, Development in Zambia
- Molteno, 1972, Zambia and the One-Party State, East Africa Journal, 6
- Wina, 1985, The Night Without a President
- Burawoy, 1972, The Colour of Class on the Copper Mines: From African Advancement to Zambianization
- Gertzel, 1984, The Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia
- Riker, 1986, The Art of Political Manipulation
- Chipungu, 1992, Guardians in Their Time: Experiences of Zambians under Colonial Rule, 1890–1964
- Lemarchand, 1970, Rwanda and Burundi
- Colson, 1969, Colonialism in Africa, 1870–1960
- Brown, 1986, Social Psychology
- Chipungu, 1992b, Guardians in Their Time: Experiences of Zambians under Colonial Rule, 1890–1964
- Collier, 2001, Ethnic Diversity: An Economic Analysis, Economic Policy, 129
- Chandra, Kanchan, ed. 2001. “Symposium: Cumulative Findings in the Study of Ethnic Politics.” APSA-CP 12 (Winter): 7–11
- Barker, 1996, Living as Equals
- Cohen, 1974, Urban Ethnicity
- Hay, 1947, Northern Rhodesia Learns to Read
- Franklin, 1974, The Flag-Wagger
- Henkel, 1985, Mission Stations in Zambia: Their Location and Diffusion Patterns, Zambian Geographical Journal, 35, 1
- Gertzel, 1984, The Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia
- 1990, Republic of Zambia Census of Population and Housing
- Greig, 1985, Education in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland: Pre-Independence Period
- Brelsford, The Tribes of Zambia
- Gluckman, 1958, Tribal Cohesion in a Money Economy: A Study of the Mambwe People of Northern Rhodesia
- Vail, 1989, The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa
- Tordoff, 1974, Politics in Zambia, 10.1525/9780520320178 · DOI
- Gertzel, 1984, The Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia
- Chipungu, 1992a, Guardians in Their Time: Experiences of Zambians under Colonial Rule, 1890–1964
- Gertzel, 1984, The Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia
- Kalyvas, Stathis N. 2001. “Violent Choices in Civil War Contexts.” Paper prepared for presentation at the conference “Preferences, Choice and Uncertainty,” Davis Program on Economy, Justice and Society, University of California, May 18–19
- 10.1093/0198296452.001.0001 · DOI
- 1933, Report of the Northern Rhodesian Government Unemployment Committee
- Okema, 2000, Suddenly, This Election Is About Religion, The East African
- Ohannessian, 1978, Language in Zambia
- Ohannessian, 1978, Language in Zambia
- 1938, Report of the Commission Appointed to Enquire into the Financial and Economic Position of Northern Rhodesia
- Turner, 1974, Ethnomethodology
- Tordoff, 1974, Politics in Zambia, 10.1525/9780520320178 · DOI
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 901–1,000 of 1,001
Lewis, J. I. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108855969.013
(2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199286874.001.0001.002.005
(2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199286874.002.0002
(2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199286874.002.0001
(2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199286874.001.0001.002.006
(2006) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199286874.001.0001.002.003
Strong Citizens, Strong Presidents
Elkins, Z. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108895835.019
Journal on Education in Emergencies: Volume 8, Number 2 (Complete)
Allaf, C., Dicum, J., Naylor, R., Bickmore, K., Kishani Farahani, N., Jones, N., Pincock, K., Guglielmi, S., Baird, S., Sánchez Tapia, I., et al. (2022) · Journal on Education in Emergencies · doi:10.33682/c6c0-nmap
Retrospective voting in hybrid regimesPreprint
Gjerløw, H., Rakner, L., & Stiansen, Ø. (2022) · doi:10.33774/apsa-2022-nqhv3
Krause, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108675079.007
Krause, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108675079.002
Krause, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108675079.003
Krause, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108675079.009
Krause, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108675079.001
Krause, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108675079.010
Krause, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108675079.011
Krause, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108675079.005
The Structure and Origins of Ruling Parties in Tanzania, Cameroon, and Kenya
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.005
Electoral Authoritarian Competition in Africa's Former Single-Party Regimes
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.009
Appendix B: Typological Theory Coding and Scores
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.012
The Puzzle of Electoral Authoritarian Competition
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.002
Conclusions: The Comparative Study of Electoral Authoritarianism
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.010
Electoral Authoritarian Competition and the African Experience
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.004
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.013
Appendix A: Electoral Authoritarian Competition in Africa
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.011
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.014
The Electoral Consequences of International Patronage
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.008
Morse, Y. L. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108596817.001
Bleck, J., & van de Walle, N. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316676936.009
Analyzing Issues in Presidential Campaigns
Bleck, J., & van de Walle, N. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316676936.006
Who Are the Localists that Support the Radical Right?
Fitzgerald, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108377218.004
Local Political Salience and Radical Right Party Success in OECD Countries*
Fitzgerald, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108377218.007
Localism and Radical Right Support in Europe*
Fitzgerald, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108377218.003
Theorizing Localism and Radical Right Support
Fitzgerald, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108377218.002
Local Autonomy Shifts, Local Cohesion, and Le Pen Support in France*
Fitzgerald, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108377218.006
Electoral Disorder, Social Change: An Introduction
Fitzgerald, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108377218.001
Fitzgerald, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108377218.011
Fitzgerald, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108377218.009
Neighborly Ties, Local Autonomy, and SVP Support in Switzerland
Fitzgerald, J. (2018) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108377218.005
ثلاثة مسارات في تحليل الهوية والسلوك السياسي: منظور نقدي
العرادي, و. ع. (2022) · حوليات أداب عين شمس · doi:10.21608/aafu.2022.266086
(2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198851073.002.0005
(2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198851073.002.0004
SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF MASS SUPPORT FOR AUTOCRACIES: LITERATURE REVIEW
Зубарев, Н. С. (2022) · Вестник Пермского университета Политология · doi:10.17072/2218-1067-2022-4-118-126
Changing Perspectives on Inequality and Development
Stewart, F. (2022) · Palgrave Readers in Economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89265-4_3
Seeing Like a State: The Crisis of Building the State of South Sudan
Elayah, M. A. A., & Fenttiman, M. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-23383-8_3
Escravidão, raça e coronelismo: municípios e finanças públicas em São Paulo da Primeira República
Nóbrega, J. L. (2023) · Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations (Universidade de São Paulo) · doi:10.11606/t.8.2023.tde-17052023-143938
Ethnic politics and sovereign credit risk
Brown, K. J., DiGiuseppe, M. R., & Shea, P. E. (2023) · Review of International Political Economy · doi:10.1080/09692290.2023.2225143
McDoom, O. S. (2023) · Working Paper Series · doi:10.35188/unu-wider/2023/430-4
Employee unethical behavior in organizations: A functionalist perspective
Zoogah, B. D., Agbola, R. M., Matenge, T. M., & Wee, G. S. M. (2023) · Africa Journal of Management · doi:10.1080/23322373.2023.2274656
Bonding, Bridging, & Bypassing
9780197743980, & Fox, C. A. (2024) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.001.0001
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0008
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.002.0009
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0006
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0010
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.005.0003
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0007
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0003
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.002.0004
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.002.0003
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0005
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.005.0001
Religious Polarization in Indonesia
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0009
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.002.0007
Glossary of Indonesian Political Parties
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.002.0008
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.005.0002
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0002
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0004
Fox, C. A. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197743959.003.0001
Ethnic Coalitions and Media Freedom in African Autocracies
Beiser‐McGrath, J. (2024) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/730733
Adanhounme, A. B., & Traore, A. (2024) · Afrique contemporaine · doi:10.3917/afco1.277.0195
Bussell, J. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190945398.002.0007
Bussell, J. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190945398.002.0004
Bussell, J. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190945398.002.0008
Bussell, J. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190945398.002.0005
Bussell, J. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190945398.005.0001
Bussell, J. L. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190945398.002.0009
Supplementary Material for Latin American Analyses
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0005
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.002.0003
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.002.0006
Ethnic Parties in Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0003
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0006
The EPR-ETH Data Set in Detail
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0001
Supplementary Material for Global-Level Analyses
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0004
Calculating Linguistic and Religious Segmentation
Vogt, M. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190065874.005.0002
King, E., & Samii, C. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197509456.002.0003
King, E., & Samii, C. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197509456.002.0007
King, E. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197509456.005.0001
King, E., & Samii, C. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197509456.002.0006
King, E., & Samii, C. (2020) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197509456.002.0005
Türkmen, G. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197511817.002.0007
Türkmen, G. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197511817.002.0003
Türkmen, G. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197511817.002.0004
Türkmen, G. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197511817.005.0001
Qualitative Research Design and Data Sources
Berg, L.-A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197572382.005.0002
Berg, L.-A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197572382.002.0006
Berg, L.-A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197572382.002.0008
Additional Tables for Chapter 6
Berg, L.-A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197572382.005.0003
Berg, L.-A. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197572382.002.0003
Metadata
- Authors
- Posner, D. N.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Posner, Daniel N.
- ORCID
- Posner, Daniel N.
- Venue
- Cambridge University Press eBooks
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press
- Published
- 2005-06-06
- OpenAlex
- W4211113828
- Cited by
- 1,113
- References
- 204
- Citations by year
- 2026: 25 · 2025: 50 · 2024: 93 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 81 · 2020: 98 · 2019: 143 · 2018: 131 · 2017: 49 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 47 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 21.66
- Type
- book
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Cambridge University Press eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › African Studies and Ethnography
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Political Conflict and Governance
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Electoral Systems and Political Participation
- Keywords
- ethnic politics, social cleavages, tribal identity, language groups, identity choice, one-party rule, voter mobilization, political institutions, Zambia, ethnic voting
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review