The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel, and is it unique to humans?

There is as yet no convincing evidence for mental time travel in nonhuman animals.

“We review comparative studies and find that, in spite of increased research in the area, there is as yet no convincing evidence for mental time travel in nonhuman animals.”

Trained apes have not provided evidence of mental time travel.

“They have not provided evidence of mental time travel.”

The correlation between these competences is age-independent.

“The correlation between these competences is age-independent.”

• cites Bischof-Köhler 2000Not checked yet

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Amnesia is linked to impairments of prospection and imagination.

“Characterization of the deficits in patients with brain lesions shows that amnesia is linked to impairments of prospection and imagination (Klein et al. 2002a; Hassabis et al. 2007).”

• cites Klein et al. 2002aNot checked yet

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• cites Hassabis et al. 2007Not checked yet

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Recent brain imaging observations reveal that frontal and medial temporal memory systems participate in envisioning the future in ways that parallel their role in remembering the past.

“Recent empirical observations using brain imaging reveal that frontal and medial temporal memory systems participate in envisioning the future in ways that parallel their role in remembering the past (Addis et al. 2007; Okuda et al. 2003; Szpunar et al. 2007).”

• cites Addis et al. 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Okuda et al. 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Szpunar et al. 2007Not checked yet

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Episodic memory is crucial for foresight, as evident from reports of loss of foresight in patients with compromised episodic memory, typically medial-temporal amnesia.

“That episodic memory is crucial for foresight is evident from reports of loss of foresight by patients with a compromised episodic memory, typically in medial-temporal amnesia (Klein et al. 2002b; Hassabis et al. 2007).”

• cites Klein et al. 2002bNot checked yet

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• cites Hassabis et al. 2007Not checked yet

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Patients with hippocampal amnesia show marked impairments in imagining future events.

“Neuroimaging results are supported by reports of marked impairments in imagining future events in patients with hippocampal amnesia (Hassabis et al. 2007).”

• cites Hassabis et al. 2007Not checked yet

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Recent work in our laboratory with rats has demonstrated behaviours that resemble 'remember, know' judgements about past occasions.

“Recent work in our laboratory with rats has demonstrated behaviours that resemble 'remember, know' judgements about past occasions”

Similar to human episodic memory, we can demonstrate a dissociation in the neural basis of recollection and familiarity in nonhumans.

“Similar to human episodic memory, we can also demonstrate a dissociation in the neural basis of recollection and familiarity in nonhumans”

We have produced direct behavioural evidence of a dissociation between recall and familiarity in rats.

“Recently we have produced direct behavioural evidence (Easton et al. 2006) of this dissociation in rats”

• cites Easton et al. 2006Not checked yet

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This recall ability is dependent on the fornix, the main efferent of the hippocampus.

“this recall ability is dependent on the fornix, the main efferent of the hippocampus”

• cites Easton et al. 2006Not checked yet

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We have demonstrated a dissociation between 'familiarity-like' memory and 'recall-like' memory in the rat.

“we can at least claim that we have demonstrated a dissociation between 'familiarity-like' memory and 'recall-like' memory in the rat”

Intact rats were capable of answering a question equivalent to 'where was object B when you saw it in the black context?' by seeking out a hidden object in the appropriate context.

“intact rats were capable of answering a question equivalent to 'where was object B when you saw it in the black context?' by seeking out a hidden object in the appropriate context”

Fornix-transected rats that could not seek out the preferred object on the basis of recall showed entirely normal recognition memory of the same objects in the same trials.

“the same fornix-transected rats that could not seek out the preferred object on the basis of recall, showed entirely normal recognition memory of the same objects in the same trials of the task”

Scrub-jays cached more of a type of food that they will not receive in a particular place the following morning than of a type they will.

“they also cached more of a type of food that they will not receive in a particular place the following morning than of a type of food that they will (Raby et al. 2007).”

• cites Raby et al. 2007Not checked yet

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Scrub-jays who are not hungry cache more food in a place where they are likely to experience hunger the following morning than in a place where they are not.

“scrub-jays who are not hungry cache more food in a place in which they are likely to experience hunger the following morning than in a place that they are not.”

• cites Raby et al. 2007Not checked yet

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Older adults, compared with younger adults, show reduced specificity both in recall of past autobiographical episodes and imaginings of possible future episodes.

“older adults, compared with younger adults, show reduced specificity both in their recall of past autobiographical episodes and their imaginings of possible future episodes (Addis et al., in press).”

• cites Addis et al., in pressNot checked yet

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Chimpanzees kept the initial cookie for at least 8 minutes in the waiting to exchange task.

“chimpanzees kept the initial cookie for at least 8 minutes.”

• cites Dufour et al. 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Ramseyer et al. 2006Not checked yet

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Chimpanzees gave up waiting earlier than predicted by their general ability to wait.

“Interestingly, chimpanzees gave up waiting earlier than predicted by their general ability to wait.”

Capuchin monkeys did not wait for more than 20 to 40 seconds in the waiting to exchange task.

“While capuchins did not wait for more than 20 to 40 seconds”

• cites Dufour et al. 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Ramseyer et al. 2006Not checked yet

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Episodic memory is part of a more general faculty of mental time travel.

“The most flexible is episodic memory, which we suggest is part of a more general faculty of mental time travel that allows us not only to go back in time, but also to foresee, plan, and shape virtually any specific future event.”

Mental time travel is not an encapsulated cognitive system, but instead comprises several subsidiary mechanisms.

“We submit that mental time travel is not an encapsulated cognitive system, but instead comprises several subsidiary mechanisms.”

Memory systems differ in the degree of flexibility they offer for anticipatory behavior.

“We suggest that memory systems differ in the degree of flexibility they offer for anticipatory behavior and put forward a corresponding taxonomy of prospection.”

Episodic memory is the most flexible memory system.

“The most flexible is episodic memory, which we suggest is part of a more general faculty of mental time travel that allows us not only to go back in time, but also to foresee, plan, and shape virtually any specific future event.”

Episodic memory gives rise to the notion of mental time travel.

“It is the second component of declarative memory, namely, episodic memory, that gives rise to the notion of mental time travel.”

Organisms fixed to a pattern that no longer prevails are disadvantaged relative to those that have more flexibility.

“But even longterm regularities may at times change drastically (e.g., climate change), and organisms fixed to a pattern that no longer prevails are disadvantaged relative to those that have more flexibility.”

The primary role of mental time travel into the past is to provide raw material from which to construct and imagine possible futures.

“But we argue that the primary role of mental time travel into the past is to provide raw material from which to construct and imagine possible futures.”

Learning and memory in general may be regarded as future-oriented adaptations that allow an individual to adjust to local change and track short-term regularities.

“Indeed, learning and memory in general may be regarded as future-oriented adaptations that allow an individual, rather than a population, to adjust to local change and track short-term regularities.”

Amnesic patients such as K.C. may know facts and procedures without being able to recall a single personally experienced event leading to knowing them.

“Thus, amnesic patients, such as K.C., may know facts (e.g., the difference between stalagmites and stalactites) and procedures (e.g., how to play chess), without being able to recall a single personally experienced event leading to knowing them (Tulving 2005).”

• cites Tulving 2005Not checked yet

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Mental time travel into the past and future are related.

“Nevertheless, there is growing recognition that mental time travel into the past and future are related, and that the ultimate evolutionary advantage must lie with the capacity to access the future (Dudai & Carruthers 2005a; Suddendorf & Busby 2003b; 2005; Suddendorf & Corballis 1997; Tulving 2005).”

• cites Dudai & Carruthers 2005aNot checked yet

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• cites Suddendorf & Busby 2003b; 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Suddendorf & Corballis 1997Not checked yet

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Semantic prospection is restricted because it builds on a knowledge base impervious to particularities of the learning event.

“Nevertheless, such prospection is restricted in that it builds on a knowledge base that is impervious to particularities of the learning event itself.”

The distinction between remembering and knowing is supported by experimental manipulations, imaging studies, and dissociations following brain injury.

“This distinction is supported by experimental manipulations and imaging studies, and by dissociations in impairments following brain injury (Gardiner et al. 2002; Henson et al. 1999; Klein et al. 2002b; Tulving 2005).”

• cites Gardiner et al. 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Henson et al. 1999 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Klein et al. 2002bNot checked yet

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Declarative memories provide greater flexibility because they can be voluntarily triggered top-down from the frontal lobes.

“Declarative or explicit memories provide greater flexibility because they can also be voluntarily triggered topdown from the frontal lobes, rather than bottom-up through perception (Miyashita 2004).”

• cites Miyashita 2004Not checked yet

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Mental time travel provides increased behavioral flexibility to act in the present to increase future survival chances.

“The answer we propose is that mental time travel provides increased behavioral flexibility to act in the present to increase future survival chances (Suddendorf & Busby 2003b; 2005).”

• cites Suddendorf & Busby 2003b; 2005Not checked yet

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Semantic memory may enable semantic prospection that is voluntary and not stimulus-bound.

“Semantic memory may thus enable semantic prospection that is voluntary and not stimulus-bound.”

The phenomenological experience of remembering is different from merely knowing a fact.

“The phenomenological experience of remembering , or what Tulving (1985) calls autonoetic or self-knowing consciousness, such as recollecting where and when one learned that Wellington is the capital of New Zealand, is different from merely knowing that fact.”

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All non-declarative memory systems allow behavior to be modulated by experience such that the organism gains a future advantage.

“All these non-declarative memory systems allow behavior to be modulated by experience such that the organism gains a future advantage.”

Many animal species, as well as human neurological patients and children, show dissociations between what they know in the perceptual domain and what knowledge they can use to control action.

“Many animal species, as well as human neurological patients and children, show dissociations between what they know in the perceptual domain and what knowledge they can use to control action (Hauser 2003; Sterelny 2003).”

• cites Hauser 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Sterelny 2003Not checked yet

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Non-declarative memory systems allow stimulus-driven prediction of regularities.

“They allow stimulus-driven prediction of regularities.”

Action systems differ in the flexibility or response breadth they provide.

“Action systems differ in the flexibility or response breadth they provide (Sterelny 2003); for example, they may include relatively narrow options such as hibernating or storing food, or highly flexible options like cooking and preserving food in diverse ways.”

• cites Sterelny 2003Not checked yet

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Rhesus monkeys seemed unable to learn that a preferred food was available only after a short interval, but not after a long one.

“Rhesus monkeys, for example, seemed unable to learn that a preferred food was available only after a short interval, but not after a long one (Hampton et al. 2005), whereas rats were able to learn that a particular arm of a maze contained chocolate pellets after a long delay but not after a short delay (Babb & Crystal 2005).”

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Episodic memory is often unreliable and subject to distortion.

“Although episodic memory preserves something of the particularities of individual events, it is often unreliable and subject to distortion, as we have seen.”

Normal adults report a decrease in phenomenological richness of both past and future episodes with increased distance from the present.

“Normal adults report a decrease in phenomenological richness of both past and future episodes with increased distance from the present (D'Argembeau & Van der Linden 2004).”

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The prefrontal cortex has been substantially reorganized in the course of human evolution.

“Regardless of the question of size, there is also evidence that the prefrontal cortex has been substantially reorganized in the course of human evolution.”

Nonhuman species commonly display behaviors that depend on non-declarative future-oriented systems.

“Nonhuman species commonly display behaviors that depend on non-declarative future-oriented systems, and there is strong evidence that some of them can also deploy semantic memory for future-directed action.”

Jays recache food if observed by a more dominant bird.

“Earlier, we alluded to evidence that they recache food if observed by a more dominant bird (Dally et al. 2006b).”

• cites Dally et al. 2006bNot checked yet

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Amnesic patients unable to answer simple questions about yesterday's events are equally unable to say what might happen tomorrow.

“Amnesic patients who are unable to answer simple questions about yesterday's events have been found to be equally unable to say what might happen tomorrow (Klein et al. 2002b; Tulving 1985), and it is not until around age 4 that children are able to accurately answer both such questions (Busby & Suddendorf 2005).”

• cites Klein et al. 2002bNot checked yet

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• cites Tulving 1985 sourceNot checked yet

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Scrub jays can select food locations according to the type of food and how long it has been stored.

“Scrub jays can select food locations not only according to the type of food, but also according to how long it has been stored.”

The rats' behavior suggests they had little sense of what would happen in the future.

“This suggests that they had little sense of what would happen in the future.”

Some neurophysiological evidence suggests mental time travel may be uniquely human, since brain areas involved have undergone changes not evident in other primates.

“Some of this evidence suggests, in fact, that mental time travel may be uniquely human, since the brain areas involved have apparently undergone changes that are not evident in other primates.”

Adult jays modulate caching behavior in ways that seem to take the possibility of future pilfering into account.

“Whatever the outcome of such an experiment, adult jays have been shown to modulate caching behavior in ways that seem to take the possibility of future pilfering into account.”

• cites Dally et al. 2006bNot checked yet

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There is strong evidence that some nonhuman species can deploy semantic memory for future-directed action.

“Nonhuman species commonly display behaviors that depend on non-declarative future-oriented systems, and there is strong evidence that some of them can also deploy semantic memory for future-directed action.”

There are viable alternatives to the notion that evidence for www or wwww memories is evidence for mental time travel.

“Whether or not this specific hypothesis is correct, it should be clear that there are viable alternatives to the notion that evidence for www, or even wwww, memories is evidence for mental time travel.”

The key to mental time travel may lie in part in the expansion of the brain, and the prefrontal cortex in particular, in human evolution.

“For example, the key to mental time travel may lie in part in the expansion of the brain, and the prefrontal cortex in particular, in human evolution.”

It is not until around age 4 that children are able to accurately answer both questions about yesterday's events and what might happen tomorrow.

“Amnesic patients who are unable to answer simple questions about yesterday's events have been found to be equally unable to say what might happen tomorrow (Klein et al. 2002b; Tulving 1985), and it is not until around age 4 that children are able to accurately answer both such questions (Busby & Suddendorf 2005).”

• cites Busby & Suddendorf 2005Not checked yet

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Patients with depression who have trouble retrieving specific past memories also have trouble imagining specific future episodes.

“Patients with depression who have trouble retrieving specific memories from their past also have trouble imagining specific future episodes (Williams et al. 1996).”

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In cases of amnesia, episodic memories are the most vulnerable.

“In cases of amnesia, moreover, it is episodic memories that are the most vulnerable (Wheeler et al. 1997).”

• cites Wheeler et al. 1997Not checked yet

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Jays were more likely to move food to new locations if a more dominant bird observed the caching than if a less dominant bird did.

“The birds were more likely to move the food to new locations if a more dominant bird observed the caching than if a less dominant bird did so.”

The episodic component provides the particularities that can fit future plans precisely to the occasion.

“Nevertheless, it is the episodic component that provides the particularities that can fit one's future plans precisely to the occasion - the seating arrangement, the clothes one might wear, the menu, the topics of conversation.”

The involvement of the prefrontal cortex may depend on neural loops that also encompass the basal ganglia and perhaps other regions.

“The involvement of the prefrontal cortex may depend on neural loops that also encompass the basal ganglia and perhaps other regions as well.”

The temporal distribution of past events people envisage follows the same power function as the temporal distribution of anticipated future events.

“The temporal distribution of past events people envisage follows the same power function as the temporal distribution of anticipated future events (Spreng & Levine 2006).”

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When caching and retrieval develop in such predictable fashion, it appears to be based on instinctive or implicitly learned predispositions that may be modulated by semantic memory but need not involve mental time travel.

“When caching and retrieval develop in such predictable fashion, it appears to be based on instinctive or implicitly learned predispositions that may be modulated by semantic memory but need not involve mental time travel (Suddendorf & Busby 2003b).”

• cites Suddendorf & Busby 2003bNot checked yet

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Rats were able to learn that a particular arm of a maze contained chocolate pellets after a long delay but not after a short delay.

“Rhesus monkeys, for example, seemed unable to learn that a preferred food was available only after a short interval, but not after a long one (Hampton et al. 2005), whereas rats were able to learn that a particular arm of a maze contained chocolate pellets after a long delay but not after a short delay (Babb & Crystal 2005).”

• cites Babb & Crystal 2005Not checked yet

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Mental time travel into the past shares cognitive resources with mental construction of potential future episodes.

“However, various lines of evidence suggest that mental time travel into the past shares cognitive resources with mental construction of potential future episodes (Suddendorf & Corballis 1997).”

• cites Suddendorf & Corballis 1997Not checked yet

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Jays may store information about who observes them cache.

“Recent evidence indicates that jays may indeed also store information about who observes them cache (Dally et al. 2006b).”

• cites Dally et al. 2006bNot checked yet

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The fragmentary and fragile nature of episodic memory suggests its adaptiveness may derive less from accurate record of personal history than from providing a vocabulary to construct planned future events.

“The fact that episodic memory is fragmentary and fragile suggests that its adaptiveness may derive less from its role as an accurate record of personal history than from providing a 'vocabulary' from which to construct planned future events (and perhaps to embellish events of the past).”

Human conversation is replete with references to past and planned future episodes.

“In marked contrast, human conversation is replete with references to past and planned future episodes (e.g., Szagun 1978).”

• cites Szagun 1978Not checked yet

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Our ability to revisit the past may be only a design feature of our ability to conceive of the future.

“Indeed, our ability to revisit the past may be only a design feature of our ability to conceive of the future (Suddendorf & Busby 2003b).”

• cites Suddendorf & Busby 2003bNot checked yet

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Rats continued to cache food in locations in a maze where food was later repeatedly degraded or pilfered, even though they avoided those locations in retrieving food.

“For example, one study showed that rats continued to cache food in locations in a maze where food was later repeatedly degraded or pilfered, even though they avoided those locations in retrieving the food (McKenzie et al. 2005).”

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We remain unconvinced that any of these cases shows true mental time travel.

“Although we look forward to a more comprehensive table, we remain unconvinced that any of these cases shows true mental time travel (Hampton & Schwartz 2004; Roberts 2002; Suddendorf & Busby 2003b).”

• cites Hampton & Schwartz 2004Not checked yet

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• cites Roberts 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Suddendorf & Busby 2003bNot checked yet

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Episodic-like memory may result from feed-forward mechanisms that need not be about the past at all.

“In fact, episodic-like memory may result from feed-forward mechanisms that need not be about the past at all.”

The selective advantage of mental time travel is the increased flexibility in acting in the present to secure future needs.

“We argued earlier that the selective advantage of mental time travel is the increased flexibility in acting in the present to secure future needs.”

In Mulcahy and Call (2006), in 7 out of 16 trials on average, apes carried a suitable tool into the waiting room and returned with it to obtain grapes an hour later.

“In 7 out of 16 trials, on average, the apes carried a suitable tool into the waiting room and returned with it to obtain grapes an hour later.”

• cites Mulcahy & Call 2006Not checked yet

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Human working memory appears to comprise, in addition to a central executive, two distinct subsystems: a phonological loop and a visuospatial sketchpad.

“Human working memory appears to comprise, in addition to a central executive, two distinct subsystems: a phonological loop and a visuospatial sketchpad.”

• cites Baddeley 1992Not checked yet

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A third experiment showed that the apes could pass the task even when they could not see the apparatus during tool selection.

“A third experiment showed that the apes could pass the task even when they could not see the apparatus during tool selection.”

• cites Mulcahy & Call 2006Not checked yet

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The best orangutan and bonobo still returned with a suitable tool in more cases than expected by chance after an overnight delay.

“This orangutan and the best performing bonobo were then tested again, but with an overnight delay between tool selection and return. They still returned with a suitable tool in more cases than expected by chance.”

• cites Mulcahy & Call 2006Not checked yet

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Gorillas and orangutans can select an appropriate tool in one location to solve a problem at another location that was not simultaneously visible.

“Mulcahy et al. (2005), for example, have shown that gorillas and orangutans can select an appropriate tool in one location to solve a problem at another location that was not simultaneously visible.”

• cites Mulcahy et al. 2005Not checked yet

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The learning constraints of regent honeyeaters distinguish their future-oriented learning from the flexible future-oriented behavior characteristic of human mental time travel.

“Though this learning is appropriately future-oriented to the contingencies of its habitat, such constraints distinguish it from the flexible future-oriented behavior characteristic of human mental time travel.”

In the final control study, performance was poorer when subjects received a grape reward for returning the right tool but were not given an opportunity to use it.

“Performance in this condition was poorer, suggesting that they did plan ahead in the other studies (Mulcahy & Call 2006).”

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Future-oriented behaviors may not be fundamentally different from non-behavioral species-specific adaptations to the same problem.

“Are these future-oriented behaviors fundamentally different from non-behavioral species-specific adaptations to the same problem, such as seasonally storing food as blubber or body fat? Perhaps not.”

The Bischof-Köhler hypothesis may still apply to more individual, flexible situations involving non-instinctive behaviors.

“The Bischof-Ko ¨hler hypothesis may still apply to more individual, flexible situations involving non-instinctive behaviors.”

When observed caching food, jays re-cache food only if they themselves had previously stolen the food of others.

“Another study has shown that, when observed caching food, jays re-cache food only if they themselves had previously stolen the food of others.”

• cites Emery & Clayton 2001Not checked yet

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The data from the two control animals that never brought the tool back do not inform us about the power of the reward.

“Thus, their data do not inform us about the power of the reward.”

Even if subsequent studies confirm that great apes can select and keep a different tool for a specific future use, it does not show anticipation of future needs as proposed by the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis.

“But even if subsequent studies confirm that great apes can select and keep a different tool for a specific future use, it does not show anticipation of future needs as proposed by the Bischof-Ko ¨hler hypothesis.”

At present the limit proposed by the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis has not been falsified.

“More research is required to determine the extent of animal foresight, but at present the limit proposed by the Bischof-Ko ¨hler hypothesis has not been falsified.”

There were strong individual differences in performance, with one orangutan achieving 15 out of 16 correct.

“There were strong individual differences in performance, with one orangutan achieving 15 out of 16 correct.”

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The studies did not control or manipulate the drive or need state of the subjects.

“The studies did not control or manipulate the drive or need state of the subjects, and it is not unreasonable to assume that they all had a desire for grape rewards throughout testing (Suddendorf 2006).”

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• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The apes in the Mulcahy and Call studies had a desire for grape rewards throughout testing.

The 'future need' potentially anticipated in these studies refers to the 'need' for a tool to satisfy a current desire for the treat, not anticipation of a different internal drive or need state.

“The 'future need' potentially anticipated in these studies refers to the 'need' for a tool to satisfy a current desire for the treat, not anticipation of a different internal drive or need state (e.g., such as a future desire that is different from present).”

The data so far continue to suggest that mental time travel is unique to humans.

“We maintain that the data so far continue to suggest that mental time travel is unique to humans.”

If a component of mental time travel is present only weakly, if at all, in other species, mental time travel would be severely limited, at best.

“Should a component be present only weakly, if at all, in other species, mental time travel would be severely limited, at best.”

To make offline processing directly relevant to situations, one has to be able to collate it with perceptions of the present real world.

“To make such offline processing, or mental play, directly relevant to situations, however, one also has to be able to collate it with perceptions of the present real world.”

In other species, solutions to the need to bridge temporally distant events are typically highly specific and lack the flexibility of mental time travel.

“In other species, solutions to the need to bridge temporally distant events are typically highly specific and lack the flexibility of mental time travel.”

Episodic memory may decline as a consequence of the increase in the extraction of facts and rules (crystallized intelligence).

“Episodic memory may decline as a consequence of the increase in the extraction of facts and rules, or what some would call crystallized intelligence.”

Retaining details of individual events becomes less important the more over-arching principles have been deduced.

“Retaining details of individual events becomes less important the more over-arching principles have been deduced.”

This temporally extended learning mechanism appears to have evolved in response to a recurring problem with strong selective force.

“This temporally extended learning mechanism thus appears to have evolved in response to a recurring problem with strong selective force (those who eat too much of the wrong food die).”

Support for most components of mental time travel in nonhuman animals is very slim.

“support for most others is very slim.”

Adult humans may fail to act now for a particular future event because of a deficiency in any one of the components of mental time travel.

“Adult humans may fail to act now for a particular future event because of a deficiency in any one of these components”

By 400,000 years ago some hominins had clearly developed aimed throwing, as revealed by wooden spears uncovered in Germany together with butchered horses.

“By 400,000 years ago some hominins had clearly developed aimed throwing, as revealed by wooden spears uncovered in Germany together with butchered horses (Thieme 1997).”

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The possibility of a gap between the human and animal mind need not contradict Darwinian principles of natural selection.

“The possibility of a gap between the human and animal mind need not contradict Darwinian principles of natural selection.”

The earliest hard evidence for foresight comprises stone tools that appear to have been transported for repeated use.

“The earliest hard evidence, quite literally, for foresight comprises stone tools that appear to have been transported for repeated use.”

Predictions can increasingly be made by abstract rules (semantic prospection) rather than through imagination of individual future events.

“Predictions can increasingly be made by abstract rules (i.e., using semantic prospection) rather than through imagination of individual future events.”

Secondary representations allow an individual to test potential moves by mental rather than physical trial and error.

“So-called secondary representations are thought to allow just that (Perner 1991; Suddendorf 1999). In addition to a primary representation of current reality, a secondary representation of a goal constellation, for example, allows an individual to test potential moves by mental rather than physical trial and error.”

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• cites Suddendorf 1999Not checked yet

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Around ages 3-4, implicated prefrontal regions mature.

“It is around this latter time that unequivocal evidence for episodic memory emerges, childhood amnesia ceases, and implicated prefrontal regions mature (e.g., Levine 2004).”

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If the key function of mental time travel into the past is to inform and allow anticipation of the future, then in formative years people must retain as much event detail as possible to abstract facts and make specific predictions.

“If the key function of mental time travel into the past is indeed to inform and allow the anticipation of the future, then it is in the formative years that people have to retain as much event detail as possible in order to abstract facts and make specific predictions.”

Semantic and episodic prospection may interact, just as semantic and episodic memory interact.

“Just as semantic and episodic memory interact (Tulving 2005), so may semantic and episodic prospection.”

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Rats, even after thousands of trials, fail to learn the link between a stimulus and a reward if they are a few seconds apart and there is no secondary reinforcer.

“Rats, on the other hand, even after thousands of trials fail to learn the link between a stimulus and a reward if they are a few seconds apart, and there is no secondary reinforcer (Grice 1946, cited in Roberts 2002).”

• cites Grice 1946, cited in Roberts 2002Not checked yet

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Haldane computed that a variant resulting in a mere 1% fitness advantage would increase in population frequency from 0.1% to 99.9% in just over 4,000 generations.

“Haldane (1927) computed that a variant resulting in a mere 1% in fitness would increase in population frequency from 0.1% to 99.9% in just over 4,000 generations, a time span that fits easily into hominin evolution, or even into the evolution of our own genus, Homo.”

• cites Haldane 1927 sourceNot checked yet

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Imaginary narratives may operate according to the principle of 'discrete infinity', involving recursive application of rules to create an unlimited set of potential future scenarios.

“Like language, imaginary narratives may operate according to the principle of 'discrete infinity' (Hauser et al. 2002), involving the recursive application of rules to create an unlimited set of potential future scenarios (Suddendorf & Corballis 1997).”

• cites Hauser et al. 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Suddendorf & Corballis 1997Not checked yet

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Nonhuman animals may also be limited because of deficiencies in any of the components of mental time travel.

“Nonhuman animals may also be limited because of deficiencies in any of these components.”

Relating events across time may be one of the key advantages provided by mental time travel into the past, as it offers humans additional information for prediction of events to follow.

“Relating events across time may be one of the key advantages provided by mental time travel into the past, as it offers humans additional information for prediction of events to follow.”

Around ages 3-4, unequivocal evidence for episodic memory emerges.

“It is around this latter time that unequivocal evidence for episodic memory emerges, childhood amnesia ceases, and implicated prefrontal regions mature (e.g., Levine 2004).”

• cites Levine 2004Not checked yet

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Young children may fail to act now for a particular future event because one or another component of mental time travel is not yet fully developed.

“Young children may also fail to do so because one or the other of these components is not yet fully developed.”

Accumulating a vast pool of episodes of varied experiences provides an arsenal of information for future prediction.

“Accumulating a vast pool of episodes of varied experiences provides one with an arsenal of information for future prediction.”

Around ages 3-4, childhood amnesia ceases.

“It is around this latter time that unequivocal evidence for episodic memory emerges, childhood amnesia ceases, and implicated prefrontal regions mature (e.g., Levine 2004).”

• cites Levine 2004Not checked yet

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Mental time travel offers an additional degree of flexibility that, even if the adaptive advantage was initially small, was sufficient to ensure selection and fixation in the population.

“But mental time travel offers an additional degree of flexibility that, even if the adaptive advantage was in the first instance small, was sufficient to ensure selection and fixation in the population.”

Reconstruction of knapping routines suggests that at least by the Middle Pleistocene hominins produced stone tools in one site to use them later at another.

“Reconstruction of knapping routines (using refit data) suggests that at least by the Middle Pleistocene hominins produced stone tools in one site to use them later at another (Hallos 2005).”

• cites Hallos 2005Not checked yet

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Snippets in mental time travel do not have to come from the same place and time; snippets from very different times can be strung together.

“In fact, the snippets do not have to come from the same place and time; snippets from very different times can be strung together.”

During the second year of life, human children begin to display evidence for secondary representation in pretend play, invisible displacement tests, and other basic cognitive tasks.

“During the second year of life, human children begin to display evidence for secondary representation in each of these contexts (Perner 1991; Suddendorf & Whiten 2001).”

• cites Perner 1991Not checked yet

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• cites Suddendorf & Whiten 2001Not checked yet

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Animals show meaningful precursors of foresight ability.

“As reviewed in the target article, animals nevertheless show meaningful 'precursors' of foresight ability.”

• cites target articleNot checked yet

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Technological advances may have been secondary to abilities that evolved primarily in the social arena.

“Technological advances may have been secondary to abilities that evolved primarily in the social arena.”

These competences rest on a common mechanism.

“All this suggests that these competences rest on a common mechanism.”

Nonhuman animals may possess foresight as a continuum of reduced magnitude rather than lacking it entirely.

“Until definitive evidence to support the claim that nonhumans lack foresight is potentially reported, this alternative of a continuum is as plausible and thus should be assigned a comparable likelihood”

• Also stated in: § The continuum of 'looking forward,' and paradoxical requirements from memory · p. 17 · plain

  “we can follow the logic of Occam's razor and simply call it foresight of reduced magnitude.”

Modern humans use their planning capacities extensively to cooperate with, deceive, and manipulate conspecifics.

“Modern humans certainly use their planning capacities extensively to cooperate with, deceive, and manipulate conspecifics.”

One of the final steps that may have given humans a decisive edge over Neanderthals may have been autonomous speech.

“One of the final steps that may have given us a decisive edge over one of the last nonhuman hominins, the Neanderthals, may have been autonomous speech (Corballis 2004).”

• cites Corballis 2004Not checked yet

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Humans possess a brain system that functions to construct mental simulations of possible upcoming situations, a form of life simulator.

“humans possess a brain system, or interaction among brain systems, which functions to construct mental simulations that represent possible upcoming situations - a form of 'life simulator.'”

A task like getting a birthday gift, initially seeming remote from associations, could be achieved by relying on associations and their appropriate integration.

“Therefore, a task that initially seemed quite remote from being based on associations, could be achieved by relying on associations and their appropriate integration.”

Mental time travel and theory of mind appear as different outcomes of one and the same competence.

“mental time travel and theory of mind need not be externally arranged in a means-end relation, but appear as different outcomes of one and the same competence.”

A critical characteristic required from the memory system that subserves foresight is flexibility.

“A critical characteristic required from the memory system that subserves foresight is flexibility.”

Mental time travel probably evolved because selection favoured individuals who could flexibly use it over those less able to create mental models of future events.

“In other words, MTT probably evolved because selection favoured individuals who had the capacity to flexibly use MTT over others who were less able to create mental models of future events, including social interactions.”

These manifestations in animals may represent actual foresights of lower complexity rather than precursors.

“According to the alternative I proposed here, however, instead of a precursor, these manifestations may represent actual foresights, albeit of lower complexity.”

The synchrony between mental time travel and theory of mind is due to the emergence of a shared competence: the ability to become aware of frames of reference.

“We argue that this synchrony is due to the emergence of a shared competence, namely, the ability to become aware of frames of reference.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The potential for frame-of-reference awareness is beyond the grasp of even the great apes.

Positive episodes are subjectively experienced with more details and with stronger feelings of reliving or pre-living than negative episodes, for both the past and the future.

“positive episodes are subjectively experienced with more details and with stronger feelings of (re)living than negative episodes, for both the past and the future”

• cites D'Argembeau & Van der Linden 2004Not checked yet

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The affective charge of the generated mental images is a key element in guiding our current decisions.

“the affective charge of the generated mental images is a key element in this respect, the driving force that guides our current decisions”

The hippocampus may allow nonhuman animals to project both backwards in time and forwards into the future.

“The hippocampus is phylogenetically among the oldest parts of the brain, and may therefore allow nonhuman animals to project both backwards in time and forwards into the future”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The hippocampus is phylogenetically among the oldest parts of the brain.

When asked to think about their future, people spontaneously imagine more positive than negative events.

“when asked to think about their future, people spontaneously imagine more positive than negative events”

• cites Newby-Clark & Ross 2003Not checked yet

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The conscious mental simulation of emotional situations, through mental time travel, provides unique information that promotes successful adaptation to life circumstances.

“the conscious mental simulation of emotional situations, through mental time travel, undoubtedly provides unique information that promotes successful adaptation to life circumstances”

For both past and future, representations of positive events are associated with a greater feeling of reexperiencing or pre-experiencing than representations of negative events.

“for both past and future, representations of positive events are associated with a greater feeling of reexperiencing (or pre-experiencing) than representations of negative events”

• cites D'Argembeau & Van der Linden 2004Not checked yet

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Mental imagery, especially visual imagery, may play a particularly important role in representing goal-related information, as it is a sort of 'language' of goals.

“Mental imagery, especially visual imagery, may play a particularly important role in representing such goal-related information, as it is a sort of 'language' of goals”

• cites Conway et al. 2004Not checked yet

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Memory tends to be biased toward confirming positive self-views.

“Thus, memory tends to be biased toward confirming positive self-views”

Emotion plays an important role in this selection process, as it signals the occurrence of information that has potentially important implications with regard to goals.

“Emotion plays an important role in this selection process, as it signals the occurrence of information that has potentially important implications with regard to goals”

• cites Ellsworth & Scherer 2003Not checked yet

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Memories of past events and images of future ones are not literal representations of the past and future, but are instead the products of generative, constructive processes that recreate mental representations by rearranging pieces of information retrieved from memory.

“memories of past events and images of future ones are not literal representations of the past and future, but are instead the products of generative, constructive processes that (re)create mental representations by (re)arranging pieces of information retrieved from memory”

• cites Schacter & Addis 2007aNot checked yet

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There is a wealth of evidence supporting a role for the hippocampus in both episodic memory and in envisioning future experiences.

“there is a wealth of evidence supporting a role for the hippocampus in both episodic memory and in envisioning future experiences”

People judge positive events as being more likely to happen.

“judge positive events as being more likely to happen”

• cites Weinstein 1980Not checked yet

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Sometimes we remember or imagine positive experiences simply to feel better in the present.

“Sometimes we remember or imagine positive experiences, not so much to help us make decisions or plan future actions, but simply to feel better in the present”

A third function of the emotional aspects of mental time travel may be to provide material to support representations of the self.

“a third function of the emotional aspects of mental time travel may be to provide material to support representations of the self”

A recent study of scrub jay behavior suggests that these birds are capable of future planning without reference to their current motivational state or fixed action patterns.

“a recent study of scrub jay behavior suggests that these birds are, in fact, capable of future planning without reference to their current motivational state, or fixed action patterns”

• cites Raby et al. 2007Not checked yet

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Affective states associated with mental simulations of positive and negative outcomes motivate us to engage in certain types of behaviors and to avoid others, in order to maximize the probability of attaining our goals.

“Affective states associated with mental simulations of positive and negative outcomes motivate us to engage in certain types of behaviors (e.g., start a diet) and to avoid others (e.g., quit smoking), in order to maximize the probability of attaining our goals”

Mental representations of emotional episodes probably serve functions other than helping one make adaptive decisions.

“Although the primary function of emotional aspects of mental time travel may be to help one make adaptive decisions, mental representations of emotional episodes probably serve other functions as well”

One may strive to generate or prolong a positive affective state by envisioning negative events, which allows one to feel good in comparison.

“one may strive to generate or prolong a positive affective state by envisioning negative events (e.g., how things might be worse), which allows one to feel good in comparison”

• cites Sanna 2000Not checked yet

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The primary purpose of episodic memory is not to provide raw material for creative synthesis of future scenarios.

“its primary purpose is something other than to provide raw material for creative synthesis of future scenarios”

Episodic memory is badly designed for its alleged function of providing raw material for future planning.

“The problem with such accounts is that EM is badly designed for its alleged function”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: In machine learning, rote learning is an inefficient strategy.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The purpose of any learning task is to make generalization possible.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A good way to perform induction is to aggregate experience into structures such as prototypes or clusters.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Storing particular instances generally makes sense if they are statistically representative.

Autobiographical memories for emotional events are associated with a higher subjective feeling of mentally reliving the past.

“autobiographical memories for emotional events are associated with a higher subjective feeling of mentally reliving the past”

• cites D'Argembeau et al. 2003Not checked yet

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• cites Talarico et al. 2004Not checked yet

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Humans accord a privileged status to emotional information when they mentally travel backward or forward in time.

“humans accord a privileged status to emotional information when they mentally travel backward or forward in time”

Emotional stimuli are typically remembered with more details than neutral stimuli.

“emotional stimuli are typically remembered with more details than neutral stimuli”

• cites D'Argembeau & Van der Linden 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Kensinger et al. 2006Not checked yet

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Future rewards and punishments need not be consciously represented to guide decision making.

“Future rewards and punishments need not be consciously represented to guide decision making”

• cites Bechara & Damasio 2005Not checked yet

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People occasionally retrieve positive events in order to repair a negative mood.

“There is evidence that people occasionally retrieve positive events in order to repair a negative mood”

• cites McFarland & Buehler 1998Not checked yet

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Only a tiny fraction of past experiences may be recounted in this way.

“only a tiny fraction of past experiences may be recounted in this way”

Adults and children as young as 4 years have available impressions of the ages of events that provide limited information about their distances in the past.

“adults, as well as children as young as 4 years, also have available impressions of the ages of events that provide limited information about their distances in the past”

• cites Friedman 1996Not checked yet

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• cites Friedman 2001Not checked yet

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By using behavioural tasks in conjunction with lesion-based evidence, we can dissociate recall ('remembering') from familiarity-based recognition ('knowing').

“Thus, by using behavioural tasks in conjunction with lesion-based evidence, we can dissociate recall ('remembering') from familiarity-based recognition ('knowing')”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The intact recognition ability of fornix-transected rats was mediated by intact familiarity processes.

Casual conversation is an arena where much of our social existence is decided.

“casual conversation is an arena where much of our social existence is decided”

• cites Dessalles 2007Not checked yet

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To appear unexpected, a situation must be less complex (i.e., more easily describable) than expected.

“To appear unexpected, a situation must be less complex (i.e., more easily describable) than expected”

• cites Dessalles, in pressNot checked yet

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Multiple representations and processes are involved in humans' memory for the times of past events and in their thinking about the times of future events.

“Multiple representations and processes are involved in humans' memory for the times of past events and in their thinking about the times of future events”

• cites Friedman 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Friedman 2003Not checked yet

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When it comes to establishing solidarity bonds, individuals prefer those who successfully demonstrate their informational capacity and their experience with unexpected events.

“When it comes to establishing solidarity bonds, individuals prefer those who successfully demonstrate their informational capacity and their experience with unexpected events”

Episodic memory is a crucial tool that enables us to produce the most relevant story at the right time.

“Episodic memory, in this context, is a crucial tool that enables us to produce the most relevant story at the right time”

Adults' sense of the times of past events depends mainly on inferring when the event must have happened by relating the content of the memory to one's general knowledge of personal, conventional, and natural time patterns.

“Adults' sense of the times of past events depends mainly on inferring when the event must have happened by relating the content of the memory to one's general knowledge of personal, conventional, and natural time patterns”

• cites Friedman 1993Not checked yet

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Details such as precise location in space and time, weather conditions, persons present, and words exchanged are most often irrelevant and yet are almost systematically remembered, even in the long term when emotion is high.

“details such as the precise location in space and time, the weather conditions, the persons present, the words exchanged, and so forth, are most often irrelevant and yet are almost systematically remembered, even in the long term in cases when emotion is high”

• cites Brown & Kulik 1977Not checked yet

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It is crucial, when memorizing an episode, to remember every detail that may affect the cognitive complexity of the situation.

“It is thus crucial, when memorizing an episode, to remember every detail that may affect the cognitive complexity of the situation”

Time is not integral or uniform in memory for the past or anticipation of the future.

“Time is not integral or uniform in memory for the past or anticipation of the future”

The past-directed aspect of mental time travel (episodic memory) is not unique to humans.

“We examine and reject the claim that the past-directed aspect of mental time travel (episodic memory) is unique to humans”

This behavioural evidence supports other recent work in rats showing that recollection and familiarity can be dissociated with hippocampal lesions specifically impairing recollection.

“This behavioural evidence supports other recent work in rats performing a food-rewarded, old-new, odour recognition paradigm in which statistical analysis of ROC curves show recollection, and familiarity can be dissociated from one another with lesions of the hippocampus specifically impairing recollection”

• cites Fortin et al. 2004Not checked yet

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Episodic memory is highly selective; it retains a tiny fraction of all our daily experiences.

“Episodic memory is highly selective. It retains a tiny fraction of all our daily experiences”

Natural selection favored this preference and the narrative skills that allow any of us to display these qualities.

“Natural selection favored not only this preference, but also the narrative skills that allow any of us to display these qualities”

• cites Dessalles 2007Not checked yet

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When humans code when something happened, they rarely code the exact time point; instead, they often use convenient contextual cues.

“When we code when something happened, we rarely code the exact time point; instead, we often use convenient contextual cues”

The impression that time is a seamless, linear continuum is at odds with findings on temporal abilities and underlying processes.

“The impression we sometimes have that time is a seamless, linear continuum is at odds with the findings of research on temporal abilities and the processes that underlie them”

• cites Friedman 1993Not checked yet

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Nonhuman animals may code when a remembered event occurred even without verbal labels.

“there is evidence that even without such labels, nonhuman animals may code this type of information”

Memorized episodes are exactly those which are narratable.

“It is not fortuitous that memorized episodes are exactly those which are narratable”

Episodic memory was not selected for increasing planning efficiency, but as a tool in support of language performance.

“It also explains the uniqueness of EM, which was not selected for increasing planning efficiency, but as a tool in support of language performance”

Five-year-olds, who can remember specific past events and anticipate specific events to come, sometimes confuse the past-future status of these events.

“5-year-olds, who can remember specific past events and anticipate specific events to come, sometimes confuse the pastfuture status of these events”

• cites Friedman 2003Not checked yet

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What appear to be genuine episodic memories are more like 'islands in time' than memories one reaches by mentally traveling through some temporally organized representation.

“What appear to be genuine EMs are more like 'islands in time' than memories one reaches by mentally traveling through some temporally organized representation”

Specific predictions about future events can, in principle, be made by using generic prior knowledge in a combinatorial fashion.

“specific predictions about future events can, in principle, be made by using generic prior knowledge in a combinatorial fashion”

• cites Glymour 2002Not checked yet

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To foresee the possibility of being mugged in certain blocks of the city at night, one does not need the actual experience of having been mugged there at night; general knowledge of risky time periods and neighborhoods is enough.

“in order to foresee the possibility that I may be mugged if I walk through certain blocks of the city at night, I do not need the actual experience of having been mugged there at night. A general knowledge of risky time periods and risky neighborhoods is enough”

The Bayesian framework is versatile, in that it can use all available relevant information, including different forms of memory, to arrive at a prediction.

“Third, the Bayesian framework is versatile, in that it can use all available relevant information, including different forms of memory, to arrive at a prediction.”

What one can predict about the future will be limited by one's episodic memory if only past experiences can be used.

“what one can predict about the future will be limited by one's episodic memory”

Future events can be predicted with sufficient specificity without having to have episodic memory of specific past events.

“Future events can be predicted with sufficient specificity without having to have episodic memory of specific past events”

The emergence of past/future episodic memory was also the emergence, for the first time in evolution, of types of mental representation incorporating notions of past and future time.

“This entails that the emergence of past / future episodic memory was also the emergence, for the first time in evolution, of types of mental representation incorporating notions of past and future time.”

Mental time travel must play a correspondingly smaller role in foresight.

“mental time travel must play a correspondingly smaller role, in foresight”

The metaphor of 'traveling through time' can unintentionally imply a unity and continuity of time that is at odds with the fragmentary, manifold way humans experience it.

“The metaphor can unintentionally imply a unity and continuity of time that is quite at odds with the fragmentary, manifold way humans experience it”

Episodic memory by itself is a computational bottleneck.

“That is, episodic memory by itself is a computational bottleneck.”

Episodic memory is the least suitable form of memory in terms of its amenability to generalization and extrapolation.

“Note that in terms of its amenability to generalization and extrapolation, episodic memory is the least suitable form of memory.”

We are poor at remembering the internal order of some episodic memories.

“it seems likely that we are poor at remembering the internal order of some EMs”

The future value of a given parameter can be estimated by combining relevant probabilistic information about the past and present values of the parameter.

“The future value of a given parameter can be estimated by combining the relevant probabilistic information about the past and present values of the parameter”

The Bayesian estimation theory encapsulates general computational principles into a powerful and flexible framework for making predictions.

“The Bayesian estimation theory encapsulates the aforementioned general computational principles into a powerful and flexible framework for making predictions.”

• cites Davidson & Wolpert 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Glymour 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Krauth 1983Not checked yet

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In many cases, Bayesian prediction can be shown to be ideal.

“Second, in many cases, Bayesian prediction can be shown to be ideal.”

Bayesian estimation theory provides a framework by which one can make predictions about specific future events by combining information about various generic patterns in past experience.

“Bayesian estimation theory provides a framework by which one can make predictions about specific future events by combining information about various generic patterns in the past experience”

• cites Glymour 2002Not checked yet

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Without the ability to extrapolate from generalities, the amount of particularities the brain would have to store would be subject to a combinatorial explosion.

“Without the ability to extrapolate from generalities, the amount of particularities the brain would have to store would be subject to a combinatorial explosion”

Mulcahy and Call (2006) showed that some bonobos collected a specific tool for use on a specific food-retrieving task as much as 14 hours later.

“Mulcahy and Call (2006) showed that some bonobos in their experiment collected a specific tool for use on a specific foodretrieving task as much as 14 hours later.”

• cites Mulcahy and Call 2006Not checked yet

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Other types of memory must play a major role in foresight.

“other types of memory must play a major role”

Cook et al. demonstrated overlap between retrospective memory and prospective memory in rats.

“Cook et al. (1983) also demonstrated the overlap between retrospective memory and prospective memory in rats.”

• cites Cook et al. 1983Not checked yet

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Children anticipate particular events (and plan for them) before they have a clear understanding of when in the future the events will occur.

“children anticipate particular events (and plan for them) before they have a clear understanding of when in the future the events will occur”

• cites Friedman 2003Not checked yet

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A differentiated sense of the future depends on mental representations of time patterns, probably supplemented from early childhood onward with propositions that are active in memory.

“A differentiated sense of the future depends on mental representations of time patterns, probably supplemented from early childhood onward with propositions that are active in memory”

• cites Friedman 2003Not checked yet

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The common activation might be considered a consequence of greater demand of mental time travel during event elaboration both for future and past.

“which might be considered a consequence of greater demand of the mental time travel during the event elaboration both for the future and the past.”

The unique time travel addition in human evolution is not in foreseeing the future, but rather, the ability to recall the self in specific past events, that is, episodic memory.

“the unique time travel addition in human evolution is not in foreseeing the future, but rather, the ability to recall the self in specific past events, that is, episodic memory (EM).”

The magnitude of activity in each subregion was characteristically modulated by future/past orientation and temporal distance from the present.

“magnitude of the activity in each subregion was characteristically modulated by future / past orientation and temporal distance from the present.”

• cites Okuda et al. 2003Not checked yet

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Okuda et al. (2003) found that a basically similar brain network involving medial aspects of the prefrontal, temporal, and parietal cortices was activated during both thinking about the future and about past events.

“They found that a basically similar brain network involving medial aspects of the prefrontal, temporal, and parietal cortices was activated during both thinking about the future and about past events”

• cites Okuda et al. 2003Not checked yet

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Prospection can be better understood in a broader context of self-projection into other times, places, or agents that can share the same cerebral basis involving medial aspects of prefrontal, parietal, and temporal cortices.

“Recent works suggest that prospection can be better understood in a broader context of selfprojection into other times, places, or agents that can share the same cerebral basis involving medial aspects of prefrontal, parietal, and temporal cortices.”

Under well-controlled experimental setting, common activation in core network of medial prefrontal-temporal-parietal cortices was observed particularly during event elaboration.

“Under such a wellcontrolled experimental setting, the common activation in the core network of the medial prefrontal-temporal-parietal cortices were observed particularly during the event elaboration”

• cites Addis et al. (2007)Not checked yet

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Skill in narrative construction and understanding and its use in personal memory recounts is necessary to autobiographical memory.

“Prominent among the achievements Nelson and Fivush (2004) identified as necessary to autobiographical memory was skill in narrative construction and understanding and its use in personal memory recounts.”

• cites Nelson & Fivush 2004Not checked yet

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The existence of a more or less veridical memory for the past lends utility to revisiting that past in the imagination through mental time travel instead of relying on semantic memory.

“It is the existence of a more or less veridical memory for the past which, on occasion, lends utility to revisiting that past in the imagination through mental time travel instead of relying on the distillate of that past provided by semantic memory.”

Autobiographical memory consisting of narratives from the personal past emerges gradually over the preschool years as children gain practice in reminiscing with others.

“Autobiographical memory consisting of narratives from the personal past emerges gradually over the preschool years as children gain practice in reminiscing with others about things they have experienced together or separately”

• cites Nelson & Fivush 2004Not checked yet

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The emergence of both personal memory and personal possible futures is attributable to the social and cultural conditions and narrative framing of human lives and experiences.

“These complexities of the developing self in the social world strongly imply that the emergence of both personal memory and personal possible futures is attributable to the social and cultural conditions and narrative framing of human lives and experiences.”

It has yet to be established empirically that mental time travel has affected cultural change in a significant manner.

“First, it has yet to be established empirically that mental time travel has affected cultural change in a significant manner.”

There is increasing evidence for coinvolvement of motor and sensory components in memory for objects and actions, tending to conflate the semantic/procedural distinction.

“There is now increasing evidence for coinvolvement of motor and sensory components in memory for objects and actions, tending to conflate the semantic / procedural distinction.”

• cites Hommel et al. 2001Not checked yet

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Mental time travel allows people to simulate potential future scenarios in order to anticipate and plan for novel future events in a way that does not appear to have any parallel in biological evolution.

“Mental time travel allows people to simulate potential future scenarios in order to anticipate and plan for novel future events in a way that does not appear to have any parallel in biological evolution.”

Szpunar et al. (2007) confirmed common engagement of this core network in remembering/envisioning self-relevant autobiographical events in past and future.

“Szpunar et al. (2007) also used eventrelated fMRI and confirmed common engagement of this core network in remembering / envisioning of self-relevant, autobiographical events in the past and future.”

• cites Szpunar et al. (2007)Not checked yet

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Even though people can simulate future scenarios, there is no guarantee that this simulation will be accurate.

“Even though people can simulate future scenarios, there is no guarantee that this simulation will be accurate.”

These data suggest that episodic simulation of future events involves an even more intense constructive process than does episodic remembering of past events.

“these data suggest that episodic simulation of future events involves an even more intense constructive process than does episodic remembering of past events.”

The absence of clear, empirically tractable, behavioural criteria for determining capacity for MTT restricts the usefulness of the MTT hypothesis in comparative research.

“the absence of clear, empirically tractable, behavioural criteria for determining the capacity for MTT restricts its usefulness in comparative research.”

The gateway model explains regulation between the two prospection systems as a primary function of the anterior portion of the prefrontal cortex.

“Again, the gateway model explains regulation between the two systems as a primary function of the anterior portion of the prefrontal cortex.”

• cites Burgess et al. (2005; 2006)Not checked yet

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Savannah conditions offered some hominins a wider variety of food sources that were more transient and scattered than those exploited by other primates.

“Savannah conditions offered some hominins a wider variety of food sources, and these food sources were more transient and scattered than those exploited by other primates.”

• cites Bickerton 2002Not checked yet

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The day ranges of early hominids were more extended than those of extant apes.

“Therefore, the day ranges of the early hominids were more extended than those of extant apes (cf. Bickerton 2002).”

• cites Bickerton 2002Not checked yet

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Four of five hippocampal amnesics exhibited deficits in the ability to imagine novel events.

“four of five hippocampal amnesics exhibited deficits in the ability to imagine novel events.”

• cites Hassabis et al. 2007Not checked yet

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It is possible to semantically arrange a seating plan for a forthcoming event without needing mental time travel to envisage oneself at the table.

“it is quite possible to semantically arrange a seating plan for a forthcoming event without needing mental time travel to envisage oneself at the table.”

The anterior part of the prefrontal cortex acts as a gateway that modulates an attentional bias between stimulus-independent mental processes and stimulus-oriented immediate cognitions.

“the anterior part of the prefrontal cortex acts as a gateway that modulates an attentional bias between stimulus-independent mental processes and stimulus-oriented immediate cognitions.”

• cites Burgess et al. (2005; 2006)Not checked yet

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Division of labor in modern human hunting and gathering is deeply dependent on MTT.

“Division of labor in the modern human form of hunting and gathering is deeply dependent on mental time travel.”

Episodic remembering and future thinking both depend critically on relational processes that link or bind together distinct elements of an experience.

“In particular, episodic remembering and future thinking both depend critically on relational processes that link or bind together distinct elements of an experience.”

• cites Schacter & Addis 2007aNot checked yet

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• cites Schacter & Addis 2007bNot checked yet

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Two new neuroimaging studies (Addis et al. 2007; Szpunar et al. 2007) demonstrate that prefrontal, medial temporal, and parietal regions previously associated with episodic remembering show similar increases in activity when imagining the future or recollecting the past.

“two new neuroimaging studies (Addis et al. 2007; Szpunar et al. 2007) build on earlier work from Okuda et al. (2003) by demonstrating that a number of prefrontal, medial temporal, and parietal regions previously associated with episodic remembering show similar increases in activity, relative to control tasks, when imagining the future or recollecting the past.”

• cites Addis et al. 2007Not checked yet

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• cites Szpunar et al. 2007Not checked yet

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The constructive episodic simulation hypothesis predicts considerable overlap in processes that support remembering the past and imagining the future.

“This hypothesis predicts considerable overlap in the processes that support remembering the past and imagining the future.”

The fitness of hominids in this niche increased with adaptations for long ranging, as indicated by skeletal remains.

“The fitness of the hominids in this niche increased with adaptations for long ranging, as indicated by the skeletal remains.”

Without specific behavioural criteria, it is not possible to empirically evaluate the claim that MTT is unique to humans, because in absence of language, cognitive capacities of animals can only be inferred from behaviour.

“without such criteria, it is not possible to empirically evaluate their claim that mental time travel is unique to humans, because, in the absence of language, the cognitive capacities of animals can only be inferred from their behaviour.”

The Oldowan lifestyle was signified by an extension in time and space.

“The Oldowan life style was signified by an extension in time and space.”

The Oldowan culture (2.6-1.5 mya) constituted an ecological niche that enhanced the ability to mentally represent a possible future.

“we argue that the Oldowan culture, 2.6 to 1.5 million years ago, constituted an ecological niche that enhanced the ability to mentally represent a possible future.”

• cites Osvath and Gärdenfors (2005)Not checked yet

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The social factors proposal does not explain why advanced MTT should not exist among other apes or animals.

“A problem with this proposal is that it does not explain why advanced MTT should not exist among other apes or animals.”

There is clear evidence that transport of artifacts (at least stone tools) was an important trait of Oldowan culture.

“there is clear evidence that transport of the artifacts (at least the stone tools) was an important trait of the culture (Toth 1985).”

• cites Toth 1985Not checked yet

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Cognitive operations independent of environmental stimulus and motor responses are the most fundamental requirement for mental travel to objectives not present in immediate perceptual-motor representations.

“It is plausible that cognitive operations, independent of environmental stimulus and motor responses to it, are the most fundamental requirement for mental travel to any other objectives that are not present in one's immediate perceptual-motor representations.”

General social factors do not suffice as an evolutionary explanation for why only humans have advanced MTT, given that other primates are also highly social.

“General social factors do not suffice, given that other primates are also highly social.”

Available neurobiological data suggest that the mechanism of mental time travel should be extended to a broader context of 'mental traveling,' not only in time domain but also spatial context and others' minds.

“available neurobiological data appear to suggest that the mechanism should be extended to a broader context of 'mental traveling,' not only in the time domain but also in the spatial context and others' minds.”

The only significant difference between episodic and semantic future thinking is the sensation of pre-experiencing one's own personal future.

“suggest that the only significant difference between episodic and semantic future thinking is the sensation of pre-experiencing one's own personal future.”

Even a 'yes' in every box in Table 1 of the target article is not sufficient to establish episodic-like character of memory in absence of criteria of integration and flexibility.

“even a 'yes' in every box in Table 1 of the target article is not sufficient to establish the episodic-like character of memory in the absence of the criteria of integration and flexibility.”

Not all animals are strictly bound to the present.

“Altogether, these results indicate that not all animals are strictly bound to the present.”

Progress in answering comparative questions is most likely when the process being compared is already well understood within at least one species.

“Progress in answering such questions is most likely to be made when the process being compared across species is already well understood within at least one of the species in question, human or other animal.”

Chimpanzees may appreciate the time dimension itself.

“However, we showed that chimpanzees may appreciate exactly this time dimension.”

Planning for the future and recollection of past experiences are probably linked.

“planning for the future and recollection of past experiences are probably linked (e.g., Suddendorf 2006).”

• cites Suddendorf 2006Not checked yet

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Rodents, monkeys, great apes, and scrub jays can associate two or more elements (what, where, when, who) from a past experience and combine them to direct current behaviour.

“their review shows that rodents, monkeys, great apes, and scrub jays can associate two or more elements (what, where, when, who) from a past experience and combine them to direct current behaviour.”

• cites S&CNot checked yet

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Research on monkey metacognition is unique in richness and diversity of convergent data among attempts to document behaviors in animals functionally similar to those accompanied by distinct kinds of awareness in humans.

“among attempts to document behaviors in animals functionally similar to those accompanied by distinct kinds of awareness in humans, research on monkey metacognition is unique in richness and diversity of convergent data.”

S&C's approach distinguishing different cognitive components actually allows for a Darwinian continuity without MTT in animals.

“their approach to mental time travel (MTT), distinguishing different cognitive components, that is, the 'play' (or theater) metaphor, actually allows for a Darwinian continuity without MTT in animals.”

These results are first indications that animals, too, may possess capacities related to mental time travel.

“Although more controls are needed, these results are first indications that animals, too, may possess capacities related to MTT.”

In the replicated study, chimpanzees had to collect the appropriate tools and bring them back while the apparatus and experimenter remained out of sight.

“Chimpanzees had to collect the appropriate tools and bring them back while the apparatus and experimenter remained out of sight.”

All animals are superbly equipped with learning and timing mechanisms allowing them to use their own and their ancestors' past to determine future behavior.

“all animals are superbly equipped with learning and timing mechanisms allowing them to use their own and their ancestors' past to determine future behavior.”

• cites Roberts 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Shettleworth 1998Not checked yet

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There is a rich body of convergent evidence from several laboratories and testing paradigms consistent with rhesus macaques being able to monitor both certainty of perceptual judgments and strength of memories.

“there is a now a rich body of convergent evidence from several laboratories and testing paradigms consistent with these monkeys' being able to monitor both the certainty of their perceptual judgments and the strength of their memories.”

• cites Hampton 2001Not checked yet

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• cites Smith & Washburn 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Kornell et al. 2007Not checked yet

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The function of binding multimodal information makes the episodic buffer well suited to serving as a stage for future event simulations.

“The function of binding multimodal information from diverse systems makes the episodic buffer well suited to serving as a stage for future event simulations.”

FMRI data indicate that medial BA 10 is a candidate site of the episodic buffer, because it is preferentially activated during maintenance of integrated versus unintegrated information.

“FMRI data from a working memory task that requires integration of spatial and verbal information indicate that medial BA 10 is a candidate site of the episodic buffer, because it is preferentially activated during maintenance of integrated versus unintegrated information (Prabhakaran et al. 2000).”

• cites Prabhakaran et al. 2000Not checked yet

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A previously learned rule cannot account for the chimpanzees' behaviour.

“so a previously learned rule cannot account for their behaviour.”