Language anxiety and achievement
Abstract
This chapter considers the literature on language learning anxiety in an effort to clarify the relationship between anxiety and second language learning. It will first argue that language anxiety is a specific anxiety — rather than a trait anxiety — and discuss how this conceptualization has helped clarify the research literature. After Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) proposed that a specific anxiety construct which they called Foreign Language Anxiety was responsible for students' uncomfortable experiences in language classes and offered an instrument, the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), to measure this anxiety, findings concerning anxiety and language achievement have been relatively uniform, indicating a consistent moderate negative relationship between anxiety and achievement. However, some researchers (Sparks and Ganschow and their colleagues) have suggested that poor language learning is a cause rather than a result of language anxiety. This review concludes that anxiety is indeed a cause of poor language learning in some individuals and discusses possible sources of this anxiety, including difficulty in authentic self-presentation and various language teaching practices. In addition, it reports on new trends in language anxiety research that attempt to identify aspects of language learning (e.g., reading anxiety or writing anxiety) which provoke anxiety for some individuals.
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SLA researchers have mostly focused on the negative face of emotion, with anxiety being the most studied topic.
“It is fair to say that SLA researchers have mostly focused on the negative face of emotion, with anxiety being the most studied topic (Dewaele, 2007;Horwitz, 2001;Lu & Liu, 2011;MacIntyre, 1999;MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991c;Saito, Garza, & Horwitz, 1999;Scovel, 1978; and for a review, see Horwitz's (2010) research timeline).”
From The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom (2014) · cites this paper as Horwitz, 2001
High levels of anxiety seem to reduce second language learning in school.
“In addition, while not strictly a Big Five Inventory metric, high levels of anxiety seem to reduce second language learning in school (Horwitz, 2001).”
From The Role of Personality in Language Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Horwitz, 2001
High levels of anxiety negatively affected L2 acquisition in school.
“In contrast, high levels of anxiety negatively affected L2 acquisition in school (Horwitz, 2001).”
From The Role of Personality in Language Learning (2026) · cites this paper as Horwitz, 2001
Foreign language anxiety is predominantly debilitating in SL/FL learning.
“The studies have revealed that foreign language anxiety, though sometimes facilitating [11,12,19,20], is predominantly debilitating in SL/FL learning [2,3,7,9,10,12,15,21].”
From An Exploration of Foreign Language Anxiety and English Learning Motivation (2011) · cites this paper as [7]
FLCA is a unique form of state anxiety that learners experience when they participate in learning and/or using a language, where the language learner is limited in their communicative ability in the language being learned.
“FLCA is thus seen as a unique form of state anxiety that learners experience when they participate in learning and/or using a language (Horwitz, 2017), where the language learner is limited in their communicative ability in the language being learned (Horwitz, 2001;Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986).”
From The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale and Academic Achievement: An Overview of the Prevailing Literature and a Meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Horwitz, 2001
Research findings on the relationship between FLCA and academic achievement have been somewhat consistent, with Horwitz attributing this relative consistency to the uniform measure used to conceptualise FLCA.
“Research findings on this relationship between FLCA and academic achievement have been somewhat consistent -with Horwitz (2001) attributing this relative consistency to the uniform measure used to conceptualise FLCA.”
From The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale and Academic Achievement: An Overview of the Prevailing Literature and a Meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Horwitz, 2001
Horwitz noted that consistent moderate negative correlations were found between FLCA and academic achievement.
“Horwitz (2001) noted that consistent moderate negative correlations were found between FLCA and academic achievement.”
From The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale and Academic Achievement: An Overview of the Prevailing Literature and a Meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Horwitz, 2001
Cites
AIDA, Y. (1994) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.1994.tb02026.x · Cited by 1,109 · cited 4× · see citing works
“While Horwitz (1986) and Aida (1994) found relatively similar means on the FLCAS for American foreign language learners, Truitt (1995) found relatively higher levels in Korean EFL learners, and Kunt (1997) found somewhat lower levels in Turkish and Turkish-Cypriot learners of English.”
BackgroundInfluentialAnxiety and Second‐Language Learning: Toward a Theoretical Clarification*
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1989) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-1770.1989.tb00423.x · Cited by 930 · cited 2× · see citing works
“Also consistent with the construct of a situation-specific anxiety, MacIntyre and Gardner (1989) did not find a relationship between general anxiety and foreign language vocabulary learning.”
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The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom
Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014) · Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching · doi:10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5 · Cited by 1,757 · see citing works
Listening Comprehension and Anxiety in the Arabic Language Classroom
ELKHAFAIFI, H. (2005) · The Modern Language Journal · doi:10.1111/j.1540-4781.2005.00275.x · Cited by 646 · see citing works
SECOND LANGUAGE ANXIETY AND ACHIEVEMENT: A META-ANALYSIS
Teimouri, Y., Goetze, J., & Plonsky, L. (2019) · Studies in Second Language Acquisition · doi:10.1017/s0272263118000311 · Cited by 611 · see citing works
Anxiety in Chinese EFL students at different proficiency levels
Liu, M. (2006) · System · doi:10.1016/j.system.2006.04.004 · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Botes, E., Dewaele, J.-M., & Greiff, S. (2020) · Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning · doi:10.52598/jpll/2/1/3 · Cited by 333 · see citing works
Recasts, language anxiety, modified output, and L2 learning
Sheen, Y. (2008) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2008.00480.x · Cited by 330 · see citing works
An Exploration of Foreign Language Anxiety and English Learning Motivation
Liu, M., & Huang, W. (2011) · Education Research International · doi:10.1155/2011/493167 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
“The studies have revealed that foreign language anxiety, though sometimes facilitating [11, 12, 19, 20], is predominantly debilitating in SL/FL learning [2, 3, 7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 21].”
BackgroundDewaele, J.-M. (2007) · International Journal of Bilingualism · doi:10.1177/13670069070110040301 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Cognitive load theory: an empirical study of anxiety and task performance in language learning
Chen, I.-J., & Chang, C.-C. (2017) · Electronic Journal of Research in Education Psychology · doi:10.25115/ejrep.v7i18.1369 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
A Model of Foreign Language Anxiety in the Saudi EFL Context
Alrabai, F. (2014) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v7n7p82 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Botes, E., Dewaele, J.-M., & Greiff, S. (2020) · European Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1515/eujal-2020-0003 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Exploring the Fluctuations of Foreign Language Enjoyment in Conversation: An Idiodynamic Perspective
Elahi Shirvan, M., & Talebzadeh, N. (2018) · Journal of Intercultural Communication Research · doi:10.1080/17475759.2017.1400458 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
The Anxiety Factors among Saudi EFL Learners: A Study from English Language Teachers’ Perspective
Asif, F. (2017) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v10n6p160 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Horwitz (2001) observes language anxiety as one of the most significant factors in booming language learning”
BackgroundTee, X. T., Kamarulzaman, W., & Tan Joanna, T. A. (2020) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v13n10p57 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Zhang, Y., Lai, X., Yi, S., & Lu, Y. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-13190-0 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Triggers for Foreign Language Speaking Anxiety: Perceptions of Saudi EFL College Students
Faqihi, M. A. (2024) · English Language Teaching · doi:10.5539/elt.v17n2p1 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“According to Horwitz (2001), the negative effect of anxiety on the language learning process is not only intuitive but has been empirically proven.”
BackgroundThe Role of Personality in Language Learning
Mrzyglod, E., Esposito, A., Fabbro, A., Fabbro, F., Crescentini, C., & Matiz, A. (2026) · Psychology of Language and Communication · doi:10.58734/plc-2026-0004
- Authors
- Horwitz, E.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Corresponding author
- Horwitz, Elaine
- Venue
- Annual Review of Applied Linguistics
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2001-01
- Volume
- 21
- Pages
- 112-126
- ISSN
- 0267-1905 (ISSN-L)
- 1471-6356
- OpenAlex
- W2167642618
- Cited by
- 1,573
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2026: 87 · 2025: 120 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 137 · 2022: 132 · 2021: 132 · 2020: 108 · 2019: 83 · 2018: 102 · 2017: 73 · 2016: 77 · 2015: 68 · 2014: 78 · 2013: 64 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 37.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Communication in Education and Healthcare
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Keywords
- language anxiety, foreign language anxiety, second language achievement, trait anxiety, Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale, self-presentation, language teaching practice, reading anxiety, writing anxiety
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