Validity of the Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales with family carers of older adults: confirmatory factor analyses
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVES: To confirm the factor validity of the Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales (CEAS), as set out in the original development study, when used with a sample of family carers of older adults. DESIGN: A series of confirmatory factor analyses were undertaken to test the previously proposed factor solutions of each scale. SETTING: As part of a larger cross-sectional survey, the scales were completed online or via hard copy between July and December 2019. PARTICIPANTS: An international sample of 171 family carers of adults aged 65 years or older. MEASUREMENTS: The CEAS are three measures that individually assess Compassion for Self, Compassion to Others, and Compassion from Others. All scales measure two aspects, "engagement" and "actions" (two-factor solution), and Compassion for Self also measures two further dimensions within engagement: "sensitivity to suffering" and "engagement with suffering" (three-factor solution). RESULTS: Results were largely consistent with the two-factor solutions proposed for the three orientations of compassion, with acceptable fit and good internal reliability. There was some support for the three-factor solution of Compassion for Self; however, despite model fit comparable to the two-factor solution, internal reliability of the delineated "engagement" dimensions was low, and there was a weak factor loading for item 5 that measured distress tolerance. CONCLUSIONS: Use of the CEAS with family carers of older adults is promising. Further research is recommended with larger samples and to explore distress tolerance as a competency within conceptualization and measurement of compassion.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
An international sample of family carers found evidence supporting a two-factor hierarchical solution.
“An international sample of family carers found evidence supporting a two-factor hierarchical solution [109].”
From Validation of the compassionate engagement and action scales, compassion scale, and Sussex-Oxford compassion scales in a French-Canadian sample (2024) · cites this paper as [109]
This study also found support for the proposed three-factor, three-level hierarchical model for CEAS-SC, but notes poor internal consistency for this model.
“This study also found support for the proposed three-factor, three-level hierarchical model for CEAS-SC, but notes poor internal consistency for this model.”
From Validation of the compassionate engagement and action scales, compassion scale, and Sussex-Oxford compassion scales in a French-Canadian sample (2024) · cites this paper as [109]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999) · Structural Equation Modeling A Multidisciplinary Journal · doi:10.1080/10705519909540118 · Cited by 108,788 · see citing works
Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling
Tabri, N., & Elliott, C. M. (2012) · Canadian Graduate Journal of Sociology and Criminology · doi:10.15353/cgjsc.v1i1.3787 · Cited by 39,065 · see citing works
(1998) · Cited by 36,049 · see citing works
Eysenck, H. J. (1985) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0005-7967(85)90087-7 · Cited by 32,026 · see citing works
“Stress: appraisal and coping,”
Folkman, S. (2013) · Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_215 · Cited by 27,833 · see citing works
Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research
Brown, T. A. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-2769 · Cited by 15,613 · see citing works
(1993) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,690 · see citing works
Curran, P. J., West, S. G., & Finch, J. F. (1996) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.1.1.16 · Cited by 5,512 · see citing works
Caregiving and the stress process: an overview of concepts and their measures
Pearlin, L. I., Mullan, J. T., Semple, S. J., & Skaff, M. M. (1990) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/30.5.583 · Cited by 4,810 · see citing works
Structural Equation Modeling With AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, Third Edition
Byrne, B. M. (2016) · doi:10.4324/9781315757421 · Cited by 4,653 · see citing works
Assessing Reliability and Stability in Panel Models
Wheaton, B., Muthén, B., Alwin, D. F., & Summers, G. F. (1977) · Sociological Methodology · doi:10.2307/270754 · Cited by 3,147 · see citing works
Compassion: an evolutionary analysis and empirical review
Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0018807 · Cited by 2,200 · see citing works
Caregiver Burden: A Clinical Review
Adelman, R. D., Tmanova, L. L., Delgado, D., Dion, S., & Lachs, M. S. (2014) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2014.304 · Cited by 2,002 · see citing works
Encyclopedia of research design
(2011) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.48-2447 · Cited by 1,924 · see citing works
How can I deal with missing data in my study?
Bennett, D. A. (2001) · Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1111/j.1467-842x.2001.tb00294.x · Cited by 1,656 · see citing works
The origins and nature of compassion focused therapy
Gilbert, P. (2014) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12043 · Cited by 1,593 · see citing works
Physical and mental health effects of family caregiving
Schulz, R., & Sherwood, P. R. (2008) · AJN, American Journal of Nursing · doi:10.1097/01.naj.0000336406.45248.4c · Cited by 1,375 · see citing works
What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures
Strauss, C., Lever Taylor, B., Gu, J., Kuyken, W., Baer, R., Jones, F., & Cavanagh, K. (2016) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2016.05.004 · Cited by 1,021 · see citing works
A Meta-Analysis of Compassion-Based Interventions: Current State of Knowledge and Future Directions
Kirby, J. N., Tellegen, C. L., & Steindl, S. R. (2017) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 · Cited by 827 · see citing works
Cultural values and caregiving: The updated sociocultural stress and coping model
Knight, B. G., & Sayegh, P. (2010) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbp096 · Cited by 585 · see citing works
The development of compassionate engagement and action scales for self and others
Gilbert, P., Catarino, F., Duarte, C., Matos, M., Kolts, R., Stubbs, J., Ceresatto, L., Duarte, J., Pinto-Gouveia, J., & Basran, J. (2017) · Journal of Compassionate Health Care · doi:10.1186/s40639-017-0033-3 · Cited by 527 · see citing works
Survey method matters: Online/offline questionnaires and face-to-face or telephone interviews differ
Zhang, X.-C., Kuchinke, L., Woud, M. L., Velten, J., & Margraf, J. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.02.006 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Casado, R. D. P., Cardosa, M. R., López‐Martínez, C., & Orgeta, V. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0217648 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Development and Psychometric Properties of the Sussex-Oxford Compassion Scales (SOCS)
Gu, J., Baer, R., Cavanagh, K., Kuyken, W., & Strauss, C. (2020) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191119860911 · Cited by 238 · cited 1× · see citing works
“In this subsequent research to develop a new measure of compassion (Gu et al., 2019) – the Sussex-Oxford Compassion Scales – no issues were found for newly generated items representing the factor “tolerating” (which suggested that previous findings were item-level and not factorlevel issues), and…”
Self-Compassion, Coping Strategies, and Caregiver Burden in Caregivers of People with Dementia
Lloyd, J., Muers, J., Patterson, T. G., & Marczak, M. (2019) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2018.1461162 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
The needs of informal caregivers of elderly people living at home: an integrative review
da Silva, A. L., Teixeira, H., Teixeira, M. J. C., & Freitas, S. (2013) · Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences · doi:10.1111/scs.12019 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
An empirical examination of the factor structure of compassion
Gu, J., Cavanagh, K., Baer, R. A., & Strauss, C. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0172471 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
The emergence of the compassion focused therapies
Kirby, J. N., & Gilbert, P. (2017) · Compassion · doi:10.4324/9781315564296-15 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
The Evaluation of a Compassion-Focused Therapy Group for Couples Experiencing a Dementia Diagnosis
Collins, R., Gilligan, L., & Poz, R. (2017) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2017.1397830 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Steindl, S. R., Matos, M., & Creed, A. K. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-9990-8 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Caregiving alters immunity and stress hormones: a review of recent research
Whittaker, A. C., & Gallagher, S. M. (2019) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.02.002 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Hsieh, C., Yu, C., Chen, H., Chen, Y., Chang, N., & Hsiao, F. (2019) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.5106 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Steindl, S. R., Yiu, R. X. Q., Baumann, T., & Matos, M. (2019) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1111/ap.12433 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Mindfulness- and compassion-based interventions for family carers of older adults: A scoping review.
Murfield, J., Moyle, W., & O'Donovan, A. (2021) · International Journal of Nursing Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2019.103495 · Cited by 35 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The cultivation of compassion is a rapidly growing area of scientific inquiry in the field of mental health and adaptive emotion regulation, and it is newly emerging in terms of informal carers of older adults (Murfield et al., 2019).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHlabangana, V., & Hearn, J. H. (2019) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2019.1630724 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Naismith, I., Ripoll‐Núñez, K., & Pardo, V. M. (2020) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-019-00127-2 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Murfield, J., Moyle, W., O’Donovan, A., & Ware, R. S. (2024) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2020.1846650 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationCaring for caregivers/care partners of persons with dementia
Jeste, D. V., Mausbach, B. T., & Lee, E. (2021) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610221000557 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-Compassion and Compassion for Others: A Multiple Mediation Study of Personal Values
Jane, E., Serlachius, A. S., Cavadino, A., Kirby, J. N., & Consedine, N. S. (2023) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-023-02202-8 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Brophy, K., Emery, M., MacDonald, C., Côté, C. I., & Körner, A. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0305776 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Lindsey, S., Hiskey, S., Irons, C., & Andrews, L. (2022) · OBM Integrative and Complementary Medicine · doi:10.21926/obm.icm.2203039 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Brophy, K., Emery, M., MacDonald, C., Bigelow, A., Ernst, J., Graser, J., Lyons, N., & Körner, A. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02545-4 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Can cultivating self-compassion protect older aging adults against psychological maladjustment?
Kupeli, N. (2022) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610222000618 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Zaki, M. A. M., Mourad, G. M., Barakat, A. H. A., & Mohammed, H. S. (2025) · SAGE Open Nursing · doi:10.1177/23779608251329419 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales (CEAS)
Gilbert, P., Basran, J. K., & Plowright, P. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-77644-2_51-1 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Baquero-Sierra, A., Vargas-Ordóñez, C., Tawney, J., & Robinson, M. (2025) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci15101406 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The validity of the three flows of compassion scales
Hsieh, C., & Hsiao, F. (2021) · International Psychogeriatrics · doi:10.1017/s1041610220003488
The development of the Polish version of the Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales
Zięba, M., Wahl, J. E., Zatorski, M. P., & Gilbert, P. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0323687
Compassionate Engagement and Action Scales (CEAS)
Gilbert, P., Basran, J. K., & Plowright, P. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-47219-0_51
Wang, X., Yao, Q., & Jiang, H. (2025) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-025-03656-y
A systematic review of family carers' experience of compassion when caring for older adults
Barnett, J., White, N., Dillon, L., Reilly, P., Sampson, E. L., Cooper, C., & Kupeli, N. (2026) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-026-07523-6
- Authors
- Murfield, J., Moyle, W., O’Donovan, A., & Ware, R. S.
- Affiliations
- Griffith University (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Murfield, Jenny
- Venue
- International Psychogeriatrics
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-04
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 373-383
- ISSN
- 1041-6102 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3086665445
- Cited by
- 15
- References
- 36
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 0.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- International Psychogeriatrics (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion)
- Deakin Research Online (Deakin University) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Funders
- Griffith University
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Pharmacy › Nursing care and research
- Keywords
- compassion, family caregivers, older adults, factorial validity, distress tolerance, psychometric validation
- MeSH terms
- Aged, 80 and over, Cross-Sectional Studies, Empathy, Factor Analysis, Statistical, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Psychometrics, Surveys and Questionnaires, Reproducibility of Results, Caregivers
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
