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Cited by 1,021Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsEmpathy and Medical EducationPsychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction

What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures

Open access
Strauss, Clara, Lever Taylor, Billie, Gu, Jenny, Kuyken, Willem, Baer, Ruth, Jones, Fergal, Cavanagh, Kate·2016·Clinical Psychology Review
DOI 10.1016/j.cpr.2016.05.004
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Abstract

The importance of compassion is widely recognized and it is receiving increasing research attention. Yet, there is lack of consensus on definition and a paucity of psychometrically robust measures of this construct. Without an agreed definition and adequate measures, we cannot study compassion, measure compassion or evaluate whether interventions designed to enhance compassion are effective. In response, this paper proposes a definition of compassion and offers a systematic review of self- and observer-rated measures. Following consolidation of existing definitions, we propose that compassion consists of five elements: recognizing suffering, understanding the universality of human suffering, feeling for the person suffering, tolerating uncomfortable feelings, and motivation to act/acting to alleviate suffering. Three databases were searched (Web of Science, PsycInfo, and Medline) and nine measures included and rated for quality. Quality ratings ranged from 2 to 7 out of 14 with low ratings due to poor internal consistency for subscales, insufficient evidence for factor structure and/or failure to examine floor/ceiling effects, test-retest reliability, and discriminant validity. We call our five-element definition, and if supported, the development of a measure of compassion based on this operational definition, and which demonstrates adequate psychometric properties.

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  • The translated SOCS-O can be used to provide a total score assessing compassion for others comprising five factors.

    “Thus, the translated scale can be used to provide a total score assessing “compassion for others” comprising of five factors which aligns with the authors’ theoretical understanding of compassion [24,34].”

    From Validation of the compassionate engagement and action scales, compassion scale, and Sussex-Oxford compassion scales in a French-Canadian sample (2024) · cites this paper as [24]

    The Discussion (page unavailable) proposes five components of compassion, supporting the cited theoretical understanding. It does not establish that a translated SOCS-O can provide a total score; the authors explicitly say they have not shown that the five components are statistically distinct factors. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • These findings are consistent with existing literature supporting the association of self-compassion with higher levels of mindfulness and well-being, and lower levels of psychological distress and insecure attachment.

    “These findings are consistent with existing literature supporting the association of self-compassion with higher levels of mindfulness and well-being, and lower levels of psychological distress and insecure attachment [17,18,24,116–119].”

    From Validation of the compassionate engagement and action scales, compassion scale, and Sussex-Oxford compassion scales in a French-Canadian sample (2024) · cites this paper as [24]

    The Introduction links compassion toward oneself and others with well-being and mental health, and §3.1.4.3 reports correlations between the Self-Compassion Scale and related measures. But the paper treats mindfulness as a component of self-compassion, not as a separately demonstrated positive association; its discussion of attachment concerns capacity for compassion in adulthood, not an inverse association between self-compassion and insecure attachment. The cited passages have no page numbers in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)

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  • Individuals must be able to tolerate the distress they feel in response to another's suffering in order to effectively enact helping behaviors.

    “Theoretical conceptualizations of compassion emphasize that individuals must be able to tolerate the distress they feel in response to another’s suffering in order to effectively enact helping behaviors (Strauss et al., 2016).”

    From A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of the Effects of Meditation on Empathy, Compassion, and Prosocial Behaviors (2018) · cites this paper as Strauss et al., 2016

    Section 1.1 describes distress tolerance as a component of several conceptualizations of compassion and says overwhelming personal distress may hinder the ability to help. The claim’s categorical “must” is stronger than the review’s qualified account. (LLM, conf=0.85)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Self-compassion encompasses elements of mindfulness.

    “Self‐compassion encompasses elements of mindfulness, as the first step in being compassionate is to be aware and acknowledge suffering, with an open, nonjudging attitude and non‐reactivity (Gilbert 2020; Neff 2003a; Strauss et al. 2016).”

    From The Mechanisms Underlying the Relationship Between Self‐Compassion and Psychological Outcomes in Adult Populations: A Systematic Review. (2025) · cites this paper as Strauss et al. 2016

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  1. 1. Review of identified measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 3.1.1. Compassionate love scale (CLS; Sprecher & Fehr, 2005) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
  2. Penner, L. A., Fritzsche, B. A., Craiger, J. P., & Freifeld, T. R. (1995). Measuring the prosocial personality. In J.Butcher, & C. D.Spielberger (Eds.), Advances in personality assessment, Vol. 10 Hillsdale, NJ: LEA.

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Authors
Strauss, C., Lever Taylor, B., Gu, J., Kuyken, W., Baer, R., Jones, F., & Cavanagh, K.
Affiliations
  • University of Sussex (GB)
  • Warneford Hospital (GB)
  • University of Kentucky (US)
  • Canterbury Christ Church University (GB)
Corresponding author
Strauss, Clara
ORCID
Venue
Clinical Psychology Review
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2016-07
Volume
47
Pages
15-27
ISSN
0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.cpr.2016.05.004
OpenAlex
W2395884151
Cited by
1,021
References
70
Citations by year
2026: 118 · 2025: 156 · 2024: 143 · 2023: 124 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 102 · 2020: 96 · 2019: 54 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 3
FWCI
6.56
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Create (Canterbury Christ Church University) (acceptedVersion)
  • Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
Funders
Economic and Social Research Council (1362793)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Empathy and Medical Education
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Keywords
compassion, psychometric properties, factor structure
MeSH terms
Empathy, Humans

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