How Will Copper Contamination Constrain Future Global Steel Recycling?
Open accessAbstract
Copper in steel causes metallurgical problems, but is pervasive in end-of-life scrap and cannot currently be removed commercially once in the melt. Contamination can be managed to an extent by globally trading scrap for use in tolerant applications and dilution with primary iron sources. However, the viability of long-term strategies can only be evaluated with a complete characterization of copper in the global steel system and this is presented in this paper. The copper concentration of flows along the 2008 steel supply chain is estimated from a survey of literature data and compared with estimates of the maximum concentration that can be tolerated in steel products. Estimates of final steel demand and scrap supply by sector are taken from a global stock-saturation model to determine when the amount of copper in the steel cycle will exceed that which can be tolerated. Best estimates show that quantities of copper arising from conventional scrap preparation can be managed in the global steel system until 2050 assuming perfectly coordinated trade and extensive dilution, but this strategy will become increasingly impractical. Technical and policy interventions along the supply chain are presented to close product loops before this global constraint.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Copper and tin contamination limits the usefulness of secondary steel and scenarios foresee a possible saturation of the steel stock with copper within material tolerances, impeding further recycling.
“Copper and tin contamination limits the usefulness of secondary steel and scenarios foresee a possible saturation of the steel stock with copper within material tolerances, impeding further recycling [171].”
From Material efficiency strategies to reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with buildings, vehicles, and electronics—a review (2019) · cites this paper as [171]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
Wildenboer, R. A., & Sandenbergh, R. (2021) · Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy · doi:10.17159/2411-9717 · Cited by 831 · see citing works
Options for Achieving a 50% Cut in Industrial Carbon Emissions by 2050
Allwood, J. M., Cullen, J. M., & Milford, R. L. (2010) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es902909k · Cited by 491 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Sankey Diagram in Energy and Material Flow Management
Schmidt, M. (2008) · Journal of Industrial Ecology · doi:10.1111/j.1530-9290.2008.00015.x · Cited by 346 · see citing works
Pauliuk, S., Milford, R. L., Müller, D. B., & Allwood, J. M. (2013) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es303149z · Cited by 344 · see citing works
Self-citationSteel all over the world: Estimating in-use stocks of iron for 200 countries
Pauliuk, S., Wang, T., & Müller, D. B. (2012) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2012.11.008 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Gerrard, J., & Kandlikar, M. (2006) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.06.004 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Mapping the global flow of steel: From steelmaking to end-use goods
Cullen, J. M., Allwood, J. M., & Bambach, M. D. (2012) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es302433p · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Roles of Energy and Material Efficiency in Meeting Steel Industry CO <sub>2</sub> Targets
Milford, R. L., Pauliuk, S., Allwood, J. M., & Müller, D. B. (2013) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es3031424 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
Self-citationOutlook of the World Steel Cycle Based on the Stock and Flow Dynamics
Hatayama, H., Daigo, I., Matsuno, Y., & Adachi, Y. (2010) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es100044n · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Moving Toward the Circular Economy: The Role of Stocks in the Chinese Steel Cycle
Pauliuk, S., Wang, T., & Müller, D. B. (2011) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es201904c · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Yellishetty, M., Mudd, G. M., Ranjith, P. G., et al. (2011) · Environmental Science & Policy · doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2011.04.008 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Pauliuk, S., Kondo, Y., Nakamura, S., & Nakajima, K. (2016) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.09.029 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Thermodynamic Analysis for the Controllability of Elements in the Recycling Process of Metals
Nakajima, K., Takeda, O., Miki, T., Matsubae, K., & Nagasaka, T. (2011) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es104231n · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Long-term global availability of steel scrap
Oda, J., Akimoto, K., & Tomoda, T. (2013) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.10.002 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
MaTrace: Tracing the Fate of Materials over Time and Across Products in Open-Loop Recycling
Nakamura, S., Kondo, Y., Kagawa, S., Matsubae, K., Nakajima, K., & Nagasaka, T. (2014) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es500820h · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Unintentional Flow of Alloying Elements in Steel during Recycling of End‐of‐Life Vehicles
Ohno, H., Matsubae, K., Nakajima, K., Nakamura, S., & Nagasaka, T. (2014) · Journal of Industrial Ecology · doi:10.1111/jiec.12095 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Nakamura, S., Kondo, Y., Matsubae, K., Nakajima, K., Tasaki, T., & Nagasaka, T. (2012) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es3013529 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Assuring the continued recycling of light metals in end-of-life vehicles: A global perspective
Gesing, A. J. (2004) · JOM · doi:10.1007/s11837-004-0176-5 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Noro, K., Takeuchi, M., & Mizukami, Y. (1997) · ISIJ International · doi:10.2355/isijinternational.37.198 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Evaporation of Cu and Sn from Induction-stirred Iron-based Melts Treated at Reduced Pressure.
Savov, L., & Janke, D. (2000) · ISIJ International · doi:10.2355/isijinternational.40.95 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Gurell, J., Bengtson, A., Falkenström, M., et al. (2012) · Spectrochimica Acta Part B Atomic Spectroscopy · doi:10.1016/j.sab.2012.06.013 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Copper Distribution between Molten FeS-NaS0.5 Flux and Carbon Saturated Iron Melt.
Wang, C., Nagasaka, T., Hino, M., et al. (1991) · ISIJ International · doi:10.2355/isijinternational.31.1300 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Estimation of the Change in Quality of Domestic Steel Production Affected by Steel Scrap Exports
Igarashi, Y., Daigo, I., Matsuno, Y., & Adachi, Y. (2007) · ISIJ International · doi:10.2355/isijinternational.47.753 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
A macro model for usage and recycling pattern of steel in Japan using the population balance model
Kakudate, K., Adachi, Y., & Suzuki, T. (2000) · Science and Technology of Advanced Materials · doi:10.1016/s1468-6996(00)00011-5 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Steel Scrap Markets in Europe and the USA
Söderholm, P., & Ejdemo, T. (2008) · Raw materials report/Minerals & energy./Minerals & energy · doi:10.1080/14041040802018497 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Comparison of Tramp Element Contents of Steel Bars from Japan and China
Daigo, I., & Goto, Y. (2015) · ISIJ International · doi:10.2355/isijinternational.isijint-2015-166 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Removal of Copper from Molten Steel using FeO–SiO2–CaCl2 Flux
Hu, X., Yan, Z., Jiang, P., et al. (2013) · ISIJ International · doi:10.2355/isijinternational.53.920 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Assessing the economics of pre-fragmentation material recovery within the UK
Coates, G., & Rahimifard, S. (2007) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2007.04.001 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Opportunities and dangers of using residual elements in steels: a literature survey
Rod, O., Becker, C., & Nylén, M. (2006) · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Matsubae, K., Nakajima, K., Nakamura, S., & Nagasaka, T. (2011) · ISIJ International · doi:10.2355/isijinternational.51.151 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Material pinch analysis: a pilot study on global steel flows
Ekvall, T., Fråne, A., Hallgren, F., & Holmgren, K. M. (2014) · Metallurgical Research & Technology · doi:10.1051/metal/2014043 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
New concepts for high-productivity RH plants
Schrade, C., Huellen, M., & Zulhan, Z. (2006) · Revue de Métallurgie · doi:10.1051/metal:2006167 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- Allwood, J. The future of steel: time to wake up. Materials World 2016, 24 (1), 44-47.
- Savov, L.; Volkova, E.; Janke, D. Copper and tin in steel scrap recycling. Materials Geoenvironment 2003, 50 (3), 627-640.
- Bjorkman, B.; Samuelsson, C. Recycling of Steel. In Handbook of Recycling; Worrell, E., Reuter, M., Eds.; Elsevier: Oxford, UK, 2013; pp 65-83.
- Katayama, H.; Sano, N.; Sasabe, M.; Matsuoka, S. Research Activities on Residual Element Removal Japan Iron and SteelToday, Yesterday, and Tomorrow. (Stockholm 11-14 June) Conference Proceedings. 1997, 1, 15-26.
- Oba, K. Wiring Harnesses for Next Generation Automobiles. Fujikura Tech Rev. 2013, 42, 77-80.
- Toyota. Toyota's Environmental Initiatives: Contribution to a Recycling-Based Society, 2015; pg. 32; http://www.toyota-global. com/sustainability/report/er/pdf/er15_04_en.pdf. (43) 2000/53/EC of the European Parliament and the council of 18 September 2000 on end of life vehicles; Official Journal of the European Communities; 21-10-2000; European Commission, 2000.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Hertwich, E. G., Ali, S., Ciacci, L., Fishman, T., Heeren, N., Masanet, E., Asghari, F. N., Olivetti, E., Pauliuk, S., Tu, Q., et al. (2019) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab0fe3 · Cited by 477 · see citing works
Reusing Heavy-Section Steel in Buildings: Carbon Reduction Potential and Material Availability
Berglund-Brown, J., & Ochsendorf, J. (2025) · Journal of Architectural Engineering · doi:10.1061/jaeied.aeeng-1918 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
- Authors
- Daehn, K. E., Cabrera Serrenho, A., & Allwood, J. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Cambridge (GB)
- University of Cambridge , , ,
- Corresponding author
- Allwood, Julian M.
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2017-04-26
- Volume
- 51
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 6599-6606
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2607821168
- Cited by
- 242
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 50 · 2025: 47 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 16 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 4
- FWCI
- 6.43
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Cambridge University Engineering Department Publications Database (submittedVersion)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/N02351X/1)
- Cambridge Commonwealth, European and International Trust (NA)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › Sustainability and Ecological Systems Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Recycling and Waste Management Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Iron and Steelmaking Processes
- Keywords
- copper contamination, steel recycling, steel supply chain, circular economy policy
- MeSH terms
- Copper, Iron, Metallurgy, Steel, Recycling
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
