Haloacetic acids in swimming pools: swimmer and worker exposure
Abstract
For the first time, the exposure of swimmers and workers to haloacetic acids (HAAs) in indoor and outdoor pools was evaluated through the analysis of urine samples. The subjects of this study, 49 volunteers, were male and female workers as well as swimmers (adults and children) who regularly attended an indoor pool (January-June) and an outdoor one (July and August). The results showed that HAAs appeared 20-30 min after exposure and were eliminated within 3 h. After 2 h exposure, urine samples taken from workers contained dichloroacetic (DCAA) and trichloroacetic (TCAA) acids at ~300 and ~120 ng/L levels since HAAs were aerosolized in the indoor ambient, whereas only DCAA was found in some workers' urine samples from the outdoor pool but at ~50 ng/L levels, despite the fact that the outdoor pools generally had somewhat higher levels of HAAs than the indoor pools. After 1 h swimming TCAA, DCAA and MCAA were present at concentrations of ~4400, ~2300, and ~560 ng/L, respectively, in the swimmers' urine in the indoor pool; similar results were obtained from the swimmers in the outdoor pool due to accidental ingestion. Finally, exposure estimates indicate that ingestion is the major route of exposure (~94%), followed by inhalation (~5%) and dermal contribution (~1%).
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Little data regarding HAAs are currently available.
“HAAs, more particularly, should be investigated, since little data regarding these DBPs are currently available [5,46,47].”
From Occurrence and Spatial and Temporal Variations of Disinfection By-Products in the Water and Air of Two Indoor Swimming Pools (2012) · cites this paper as [46]
THM and HAA concentrations in outdoor pools were higher than those in indoor pools based on two studies.
“THM and HAA concentrations in outdoor pools were higher than those in indoor pools based on two studies (Cardador and Gallego, 2011;Simard et al., 2013).”
From Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review (2018) · cites this paper as Cardador and Gallego, 2011
Ingestion (~94%) outcompeted inhalation (~5%) and dermal absorption (~1%) and became a major exposure route for HAAs.
“They found that ingestion (~94%) outcompeted inhalation (~5%) and dermal absorption (~1%) and became a major exposure route.”
From Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review (2018) · cites this paper as Cardador and Gallego, 2011
Other chlorinated inorganic or organic compounds present in air are suspected to interfere with trichloramine analysis, leading to an overestimation of trichloramine exposure, but the percentage of interference was not determined.
“Other chlorinated inorganic or organic compounds such as dichloroacetonitrile, cyanogen chloride, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid or dichloromethylamine present in the air (Cardador and Gallego 2011;Weng et al. 2011;Afifi and Blatchley 2015) are suspected to interfere with the analysis leading to an overestimation of the trichloramine exposure.The percentage of interference was, however,”
From Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting (2020) · cites this paper as Cardador and Gallego 2011
Cites
Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection byproducts†
Krasner, S. W., Weinberg, H. S., Richardson, S. D., Pastor, S. J., Chinn, R., Sclimenti, M. J., Onstad, G. D., & Thruston, A. D. (2006) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es060353j · Cited by 1,633 · see citing works
Environmental Mass Spectrometry: Emerging Contaminants and Current Issues
Richardson, S. D. (2010) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/ac101102d · Cited by 634 · see citing works
Drowning in disinfection byproducts? Assessing swimming pool water
Zwiener, C., Richardson, S. D., De Marini, D. M., Grummt, T., Glauner, T., & Frimmel, F. H. (2007) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es062367v · Cited by 380 · see citing works
Plewa, M. J., Simmons, J. E., Richardson, S. D., & Wagner, E. D. (2010) · Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis · doi:10.1002/em.20585 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
Kanan, A., & Karanfil, T. (2011) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2010.09.031 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Occupational exposure to trihalomethanes in indoor swimming pools
Fantuzzi, G., Righi, E., Predieri, G., Ceppelli, G., Gobba, F., & Aggazzotti, G. (2001) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/s0048-9697(00)00722-1 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Lee, J., Jun, M.-J., Lee, M.-H., Lee, M.-H., Eom, S.-W., & Zoh, K.-D. (2010) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1016/j.ijheh.2010.09.005 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Assessment of Exposure of Workers and Swimmers to Trihalomethanes in an Indoor Swimming Pool
Caro, J., & Gallego, M. (2007) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es070084c · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationBiological monitoring for exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) (IUPAC Recommendations 2000)
Heinrich‐Ramm, R., Jakubowski, M., Heinzow, B., Christensen, J., Olsen, E., & Hertel, O. (2000) · Pure and Applied Chemistry · doi:10.1351/pac200072030385 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Abbas, R., & Fisher, J. W. (1997) · Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology · doi:10.1006/taap.1997.8190 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Cardiac teratogenicity of trichloroethylene metabolites
Johnson, P. D., Dawson, B. V., & Goldberg, S. J. (1998) · Journal of the American College of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/s0735-1097(98)00232-0 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Inhalation Exposure to Haloacetic Acids and Haloketones during Showering
Xu, & Weisel, C. P. (2002) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es025747z · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Exposures to drinking water chlorination by-products in a Russian city
Egorov, A. I., Tereschenko, A. A., Altshul, L. M., Vartiainen, T., Samsonov, D., LaBrecque, B., Mäki-Paakkanen, J., Drizhd, N. L., & Ford, T. E. (2003) · International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health · doi:10.1078/1438-4639-00244 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Cardador, M. J., Serrano, A., & Gallego, M. (2008) · Journal of Chromatography A · doi:10.1016/j.chroma.2008.09.033 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationMartin, J. W., Mabury, S. A., Wong, C. S., Noventa, F., Solomon, K. R., Alaee, M., & Muir, D. C. G. (2003) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es026345u · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Lukas, G., Vyas, K. H., Brindle, S. D., LeSher, A. R., & Wagner, W. E. (1980) · Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences · doi:10.1002/jps.2600690415 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Caro, J., & Gallego, M. (2008) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es800415p · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citationFroese, K. L., Sinclair, M. I., & Hrudey, S. E. (2002) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.02110679 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
A review and meta-analysis of formaldehyde exposure and pancreatic cancer
Collins, J. J., Esmen, N. A., & Hall, T. A. (2001) · American Journal of Industrial Medicine · doi:10.1002/1097-0274(200103)39:3 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Hsu, H. T., Chen, M. J., Lin, C. H., Chou, W. S., & Chen, J. H. (2009) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.05.032 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Effects of dichloroacetate on glycogen metabolism in B6C3F1 mice
Kato-Weinstein, J., Lingohr, M. K., Orner, G. A., Thrall, B. D., & Bull, R. J. (1998) · Toxicology · doi:10.1016/s0300-483x(98)00106-1 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Jia, M., Wu, W. W., Yost, R. A., et al. (2003) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/ac034036w · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Wu, F., Gabryelski, W., & Froese, K. L. (2002) · The Analyst · doi:10.1039/b204574e · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Determination of haloacetic acids in human urine by headspace gas chromatography–mass spectrometry
Cardador, M. J., & Gallego, M. (2010) · Journal of Chromatography B · doi:10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.05.022 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationNelson, G. M. (2001) · Toxicological Sciences · doi:10.1093/toxsci/60.2.232 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Environmental Mass Spectrometry: Emerging Contaminants and Current Issues
Richardson, S. D. (2012) · Analytical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/ac202903d · Cited by 323 · see citing works
Disinfection byproducts in swimming pool: occurrences, implications and future needs
Chowdhury, S., Alhooshani, K., & Karanfil, T. (2014) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2014.01.017 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Yang, L., Chen, X., She, Q., Cao, G., Liu, Y., Chang, V. W.-C., & Tang, C. Y. (2018) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Health impact of disinfection by-products in swimming pools
Villanueva, C. M., & Font-Ribera, L. (2012) · Annali dell'Istituto Superiore di Sanità · doi:10.4415/ann_12_04_06 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Catto, C., Sabrina, S., Ginette, C.-T., Manuel, R., & Robert, T. (2012) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph9082562 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Parvez, S., Ashby, J. L., Kimura, S. Y., & Richardson, S. D. (2019) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph16030471 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Wastensson, G., & Eriksson, K. (2020) · Critical Reviews in Toxicology · doi:10.1080/10408444.2020.1744514 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cardador, M. J., & Gallego, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Córdoba (ES)
- Corresponding author
- Gallego, M.
- Venue
- Environmental Science & Technology
- Publisher
- American Chemical Society (ACS)
- Published
- 2011-06-07
- Volume
- 45
- Issue
- 13
- Pages
- 5783-5790
- ISSN
- 0013-936X (ISSN-L)
- 1520-5851
- OpenAlex
- W2001855358
- Cited by
- 69
- References
- 25
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 4 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 4.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Environmental Science & Technology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
- Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Water Treatment and Disinfection
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
- Keywords
- haloacetic acids, swimming pools, human exposure, urinary biomonitoring, dichloroacetate, trichloroacetic acid, chloroacetic acid, aerosol exposure, oral exposure, exposure routes, disinfection by-products
- MeSH terms
- Acetates, Adult, Child, Dichloroacetic Acid, Female, Humans, Male, Swimming, Swimming Pools, Trichloroacetic Acid, Water, Occupational Exposure
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
