Influence of Item Content and Stereotype Situation on Gender Differences in Mathematical Problem Solving
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The bias from gender stereotyped item content was not consistent.
“though again not consistently (Walsh et al., 1999).”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Walsh et al., 1999
Cites
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797 · Cited by 8,181 · see citing works
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The gender similarities hypothesis.
Hyde, J. S. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.6.581 · Cited by 3,084 · see citing works
New trends in gender and mathematics performance: A meta-analysis.
Lindberg, S. M., Hyde, J. S., Petersen, J. L., & Linn, M. C. (2010) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0021276 · Cited by 920 · see citing works
The effects of stereotype activation on behavior: A review of possible mechanisms.
Wheeler, S. C., & Petty, R. E. (2001) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.127.6.797 · Cited by 769 · see citing works
“Recall that Shih et al. (1999) showed that Asian women primed with the Asian self-stereotype performed better on a subsequent math test (see also, Hausdorff et al., 1999; Levy, 1996; Walsh, Hickey, & Duffy, 1999).”
BackgroundNguyen, H.-H. D., & Ryan, A. M. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012702 · Cited by 845 · see citing works
“109 Walsh et al. (1999) 2 of 2 Published Female undergrads (Canadian) 96 0.”
Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Barquissau, M. (2004) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/b:sers.0000029101.74557.a0 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
“Since this theory was first proposed, several studies have shown that stereotype threat might explain why women so often perform more poorly than men on standardized math tests (e.g., Inzlicht & Ben-Zeev, 2000; Keller, 2002; Quinn & Spencer, 2001; Schmader, 2002; Schmader & Johns, 2003; Spencer et al., 1999; Walsh, Hi…”
BackgroundStereotype Threat and Arousal: Effects on Women's Math Performance
O’Brien, L. T., & Crandall, C. S. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203029006010 · Cited by 413 · see citing works
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Gender Differences in Math and Verbal Self-Concept, Performance Expectations, and Motivation
Skaalvik, S., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2004) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/b:sers.0000015555.40976.e6 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
“Under certain conditions, for example working with difficult math problems, and for girls who value mathematics abilities, a stereotype threat is predicted to arouse, anxiety and to interfere with performance (e.g., Steel, 1997; Walsh, Hickey, & Duffy, 1999 ).”
BackgroundKeller, J. (2006) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709906x113662 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Smith, J. L. (2004) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1023/b:edpr.0000034020.20317.89 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
“... (e.g., sporting activities, verbal tasks, memory tests, math exams; e.g., Aronson et al., 1998; Croizet and Claire, 1998; Levy and Langer, 1994; Rahhal et al., 2001; Stone et al., 1999) for students at different developmental stages (e.g., elementary school students, junior high students, high school students, col…”
BackgroundGender and mathematics: attitudes and stereotype threat susceptibility in Italian children.
Muzzatti, B., & Agnoli, F. (2007) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.43.3.747 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“Diagnosis Threat”: The Effect of Negative Expectations on Cognitive Performance in Head Injury
Suhr, J. A., & Gunstad, J. (2002) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1076/jcen.24.4.448.1039 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
“(Low SES students do worse on hard GRE problems when told that they assess intellectual abilities, but not when told they assess attention and memory.) Stereotype threat has also been demonstrated in studies of sex differences on cognitive tasks (Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999; Walsh, Hickey, & Duffy, 1999 ).”
Stricker, L. J., & Ward, W. C. (2004) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02564.x · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Women, Motivation, and Achievement
Hyde, J. S., & Kling, K. C. (2001) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/1471-6402.00035 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Stereotype Threat and Race of Interviewer Effects in a Survey on Political Knowledge
Davis, D. W., & Silver, B. D. (2003) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/1540-5907.00003 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
“Walsh, Hickey, and Duffy (1999) examined the extent to which a negative stereotype threat might explain gender differences in mathematical problem solving.”
BackgroundSuhr, J. A., & Gunstad, J. (2005) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617705050010 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“…socioeconomic backgrounds (Croizet & Claire, 1998), has been implicated as an explanation of sex differences on cognitive tasks (Leyens et al., 2000; Spencer et al., 1999; Walsh et al., 1999), and has been suggested as an explanation for cognitive decline in aging (Hess et al., 2003; Levy, 1996).”
BackgroundPsychological Processes Underlying Stereotype Threat and Standardized Math Test Performance
Ryan, K. E., & Ryan, A. M. (2005) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4001_4 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Effects of Salient Multiple Identities on Women's Performance Under Mathematics Stereotype Threat
Gresky, D. M., Eyck, L. L. T., Lord, C. G., & McIntyre, R. B. (2005) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-005-7735-2 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“These techniques include lessening the importance of the task (Croizet & Claire, 1998; Steele & Aronson, 1995), reducing the salience of the stereotype (Spencer et al., 1999), claiming the test is not susceptible to the stereotype ( Walsh, Hickey, & Duffy, 1999 ), providing excuses for poor performance (Brown & Joseph…”
MethodInfluentialAn Examination of Age-Based Stereotype Threat About Cognitive Decline
Barber, S. J. (2017) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691616656345 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Brown, N., Xie, B., Sarder, E., Fiesler, C. L., & Wiese, E. S. (2023) · ACM Transactions on Computing Education · doi:10.1145/3634685 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“We also note that two papers discussed gender in such a way that could potentially perpetuate gender stereotypes [ 189 , 203 ].”
BackgroundMartinot, D., & Désert, M. (2007) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-007-9028-9 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“... may be two gender stereotypes regarding math ability: one favorable to girls that applies to children and young adolescents (Steele 2003, and the present results), and another favorable to men that applies to high-school students and adults (e.g., Chatard et al. 2006; Guimond and Roussel 2001; Inzlicht and Ben-Zee…”
BackgroundA Review of the Stereotype Threat Literature and Its Application in a Neurological Population
Kit, K. A., Tuokko, H. A., & Mateer, C. A. (2008) · Neuropsychology Review · doi:10.1007/s11065-008-9059-9 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“The most common paradigm is informing females that an upcoming math test is sensitive to gender differences (i.e., explicitly stating that men out-perform women on the test; Ben-Zeev et al. 2005; Brown and Pinel 2003; Cadinu et al. 2003, 2005, 2006; Ford et al. 2004; Keller 2002; Keller and Dauenheimer 2003; Lesko and…”
BackgroundSmith, J. L. (2006) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9345-z · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“When gender stereotypes are made salient, girls’ and women’s performance on math exams suffers (e.g., Spencer, Steele, & Quinn, 1999; Walsh, Hickey, & Duffy, 1999 ).”
BackgroundMcCarthy, J. M., & Goffin, R. D. (2005) · International Journal of Selection and Assessment · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2389.2005.00325.x · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Additionally, the stereotype threat literature (i.e., Oswald & Harvey, 2000; Steele, 1997; Walsh, Hickey, & Duffy, 1999 ) may provide clues as to the etiology of gender differences in TTA.”
BackgroundSmith, J. L., & Johnson, C. S. (2006) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2801_5 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Effects of role model deservingness on overcoming performance deficits induced by stereotype threat
McIntyre, R. B., Paulson, R. M., Taylor, C. A., Morin, A. L., & Lord, C. G. (2010) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.774 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
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Stereotype threat: effects on education
Smith, C. S., & Hung, L. (2008) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-008-9053-3 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Specific techniques that could be used by educators include: (1) lessening the importance of the task (Croizet and Claire 1998; Steele and Aronson 1995); (2) reducing the salience of the stereotype (Spencer et al. 1999); (3) providing excuses for poor performance (Brown and Josephs 1999; Stone et al. 1999); (4) claimi…”
BackgroundStereotype threat: When minority members underperform
Maass, A., & Cadinu, M. (2003) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280340000072 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Johnson, H., Barnard-Brak, L. M., Saxon, T. F., & Johnson, M. K. (2012) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2011.567312 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“In line with past research, we found that women performed more poorly on a math test when faced with stereotype threat (Quinn & Spencer, 2001; Spencer, 1993; Spencer et al., 1999; Walsh et al., 1999) whereas men performed better on a math test when faced with stereotype threat (Spencer et al.”
BackgroundResultBoehnke, K. (2008) · doi:10.1007/s11218-007-9041-z · Cited by 49
“Steel and his colleagues ( Walsh et al. 1999; Steele et al. 2002) have coined the term “stereotype threat” for this phenomenon, and have shown its influence experimentally.”
BackgroundHargreaves, M., Homer, M., & Swinnerton, B. (2008) · doi:10.1080/09695940701876037 · Cited by 49
“…outperform girls in mathematical problemsolving tests and it is a fairly consistent finding that boys do better than girls when taking the mathematics section of the Scholastic Aptitude Tests (SAT) (Benbow and Stanley 1980; Benbow 1988) and the Standardized Achievement Tests (Walsh et al. 1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialResearch on the Women and Mathematics Issue: A Personal Case History.
Chipman, S. (2005) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511614446.002 · Cited by 46
Impact of Attitudes of Peers on Language Achievement: Gender Differences
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The Gender Gap in Language Achievement: The Role of School-Related Attitudes of Class Groups
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“Boys’ lack of engagement is not only directed toward language, but, overall, boys are less engaged with schooling: Girls work harder, are better organized, spend more time on their homework, are less distracted in the classroom, and break the school rules less frequently than boys do (Arnot, David, & Weiner, 1999; Cla…”
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Spencer, M., Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101825 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Taylor, C. A., Lord, C. G., McIntyre, R. B., & Paulson, R. M. (2011) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430210382680 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
The Effects of Stereotype Threat and Pacing on Older Adults' Learning Outcomes
Fritzsche, B. A., DeRouin, R. E., & Salas, E. (2009) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2009.00546.x · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Race of the interviewer and the black–white test score gap
Huang, M.-H. (2008) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.07.004 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Gender Stereotype Threat among Women and Girls
Betz, D. E., Ramsey, L. R., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2013) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781446269930.n26 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Test Difficulty and Stereotype Threat on the GRE General Test1
Stricker, L. J., & Bejar, I. I. (2004) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb02561.x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Schwartz, S. B., Smith, S. G., & Johnson, K. R. (2020) · Journal of Dental Education · doi:10.1002/jdd.12143 · Cited by 16
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Stereotypes of Minorities and Education
Allen, J. M. U., & Webber, M. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-13-0242-8_107-1 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
An Investigation of Stereotype Threat in Employment Tests<sup>1</sup>
Kirnan, J. P., Alfieri, J. A., Bragger, J. D., & Harris, R. S. (2009) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00442.x · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Performance on the Swedish Scholastic Aptitude Test: Effects of Self-Assessment and Gender
Koivula, N., Hassmén, P., & Hunt, D. P. (2001) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/a:1012203412708 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Even at comparable levels of perceived ability and interest in mathematics, as well as prerequisite mathematical skills, situational pressure due to instructions that suggest that women are unable to perform well on a particular test has been shown to cause women to underperform relative to men ( Walsh, Hickey, & Duff…”
BackgroundDomain Experts' Interpretations of Assessment Bias in a Scaled, Online Computer Science Curriculum
Xie, B., Davidson, M. J., Franke, B., McLeod, E., Li, M., & Ko, A. J. (2021) · ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale (L@S) · doi:10.1145/3430895.3460141 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Future work can explore how biased formative assessment items affect test-takers from different genders, ethnicities, and other identities, perhaps considering stereotype threat [59, 64, 55] and test-taker self-efficacy [58, 31, 32].”
BackgroundContributions of African Americans to the Field of Psychology
Black, S. R., Spence, S. A., & Omari, S. R. (2004) · Journal of Black Studies · doi:10.1177/0021934704263124 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Ben‐Zeev, T., Carrasquillo, C. M., Ching, A. M. L., Kliengklom, T., McDonald, K. L., Newhall, D. C., Patton, G., Stewart, T. D., Stoddard, T., Inzlicht, M., et al. (2004) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511614446.010 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Gaymard, S., Chauveau, L., & Cohen, G. (2022) · Journal of Women & Aging · doi:10.1080/08952841.2022.2044704 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“One of the more traditional is math-gender stereotypes (e.g., Ben-Zeev et al., 2005; Eccles, 1994; Walsh et al., 1999).”
BackgroundValues affirmation replication at the University of Illinois
Gutmann, B., & Stelzer, T. J. (2021) · Physical Review Physics Education Research · doi:10.1103/physrevphyseducres.17.020121 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
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“Stereotype threat theory (Aronson and Steele, 2005; Keller, 2007; Steele, 1997) refers to the way in which stereotypes influence intellectual identity and performance and is highly relevant for understanding the processes leading to diminished feelings of mathematical self-efficacy of GG (Inzlicht and Ben- Zeev, 2000;…”
BackgroundMartiny, S. E., Götz, T., & Keller, M. M. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-531-93449-5_23 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Hsu, J. L., Clark, N., Hill, K., & Rowland‐Goldsmith, M. (2023) · CBE—Life Sciences Education · doi:10.1187/cbe.22-12-0249 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“There has also been past work that has examined the use of different genders and pronouns in a question (Walsh et al. , 1999; Walkington et al. , 2019).”
The uniformity of stereotype threat: Analyzing the moderating effects of premeasured performance
Stoevenbelt, A., Flore, P., Schwabe, I., & Wicherts, J. (2021) · Intelligence · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xz7ch · Cited by 3
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Differential item functioning detection in fundamental physics test
Saepuzaman, D., Istiyono, E., & Haryanto, H. (2022) · Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences · doi:10.18844/cjes.v17i12.7642 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A gendered self or a gendered context? a social identity approach to gender differences
Ryan, M. K. (2003) · ANU Open Research (Australian National University) · doi:10.25911/5d7a2b7c071cd · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Looking first at expectations, Walsh, Hickey, and Duffy (1999) found that when participants expected a mathematical test to distinguish between men and women, stereotypical differences in mathematical ability occurred, with men outscoring women.”
BackgroundPerformance Profile of Students in a University General Biology Course
Haning, B. C. (2003) · doi:10.2190/f50k-1wyb-74tr-7lfd · Cited by 1
“Walsh, Hickey, and Duffy (1999) found that men rated their ability in history and physics significantly higher than did women.”
BackgroundRacial Stereotype Threat: A Critical Race Perspective
McCloud, D. (2016) · doi:10.30707/etd2016.mccloud.d
“Many states and local governmental bodies, including local school boards, refused to recognize the ruling (Walters, 2001). It was only after the establishment of the Civil Rights Act (1964), and the subsequent Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965), that the federal government had any effective means of prevent…”
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Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review
Cuppello, S., Zibarras, L. D., & Corr, P. J. (2025) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-025-00504-5
Gender Bias Produces Gender Gaps in STEM Engagement
Moss‐Racusin, C. A., Sanzari, C. M., Caluori, N., & Rabasco, H. (2018) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-018-0902-z · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Martinot, D., Bagès, C., & Désert, M. (2011) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-011-0032-3
- Authors
- Walsh, M., Hickey, C., & Duffy, J.
- Affiliations
- Memorial University of Newfoundland (CA)
- Venue
- Sex Roles
- Published
- 1999-08
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 3-4
- Pages
- 219-240
- ISSN
- 0360-0025 (ISSN-L)
- 1573-2762
- OpenAlex
- W1814344639
- Cited by
- 88
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 3 · 2021: 3 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 3 · 2017: 1 · 2013: 3 · 2012: 2
- FWCI
- 2.87
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Sex Roles (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Applied Mathematics › Mathematics Education and Pedagogy
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
- Keywords
- gender differences, mathematical problem solving, gender labeling, stereotype threat, item content, standardized achievement tests, SAT
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