Cited by 845Social and Intergroup PsychologyEducation, Achievement, and GiftednessCareer Development and Diversity

Does stereotype threat affect test performance of minorities and women? A meta-analysis of experimental evidence.

Nguyen, Hannah-Hanh D., Ryan, Ann Marie·2008·Journal of Applied Psychology

Abstract

A meta-analysis of stereotype threat effects was conducted and an overall mean effect size of |.26| was found, but true moderator effects existed. A series of hierarchical moderator analyses evidenced differential effects of race- versus gender-based stereotypes. Women experienced smaller performance decrements than did minorities when tests were difficult: mean ds = |.36| and |.43|, respectively. For women, subtle threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and moderately explicit cues: ds = |.24|, |.18|, and |.17|, respectively; explicit threat-removal strategies were more effective in reducing stereotype threat effects than subtle ones: ds = |.14| and |.33|, respectively. For minorities, moderately explicit stereotype threat-activating cues produced the largest effect, followed by blatant and subtle cues: ds = |.64|, |.41|, and |.22|, respectively; explicit removal strategies enhanced stereotype threat effects compared with subtle strategies: ds = |.80| and |.34|, respectively. In addition, stereotype threat affected moderately math-identified women more severely than highly math-identified women: ds = |.52| and |.29|, respectively; low math-identified women suffered the least from stereotype threat: d= |.11|. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

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Crossref · 10.1037/a0012702

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  • Initial studies on stereotype threat found statistically significant effects, but subsequent re-analyses and other studies failed to replicate them.

    “even though the initial studies on stereotype threat found statistically significant effects (Nguyen and Ryan [2008]), subsequent re-analyses (Zigerell [2017]), and other studies failed to replicate them (Finnigan and Corker [2016]; Flore et al. [2019]).”

    From Science Communication and the Problematic Impact of Descriptive Norms (2023) · cites this paper as Nguyen and Ryan [2008]

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Cited works that were retracted

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  • Cites a retracted work: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.243

    Info

    The cited work was retracted on 2013-01-01 (notice 10.1037/a0031270), not before this paper was published (2008).

    Cited work 10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.243 · retracted 2013-01-01 · notice 10.1037/a0031270 · this paper published 2008

  • Cites a retracted work: 10.1002/ejsp.310

    Info

    The cited work was retracted on 2012-10-05 (notice 10.1002/ejsp.1919), not before this paper was published (2008).

    Cited work 10.1002/ejsp.310 · retracted 2012-10-05 · notice 10.1002/ejsp.1919 · this paper published 2008

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Authors
Nguyen, H.-H. D., & Ryan, A. M.
Affiliations
  • California State University, Long Beach (US)
  • Michigan State University (US)
Venue
Journal of Applied Psychology
Published
2008
Volume
93
Issue
6
Pages
1314-1334
ISSN
  • 0021-9010 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1854
OpenAlex
W2170594921
Cited by
845
References
124
Citations by year
2026: 14 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 69 · 2021: 76 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 76 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 77 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 39 · 2012: 43
FWCI
20.58
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Journal of Applied Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Science Foundation
  • Michigan State University
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
  • Social Sciences › Safety Research › Career Development and Diversity
Keywords
stereotype threat, test performance, women, racial minorities, gender stereotypes, racial stereotypes
MeSH terms
Affect, Employee Performance Appraisal, Female, Humans, Male, Minority Groups, Psychological Tests, Stereotyping

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