An Investigation of Stereotype Threat in Employment Tests1
Abstract
This investigation extends stereotype threat research by examining its effect on sex and ethnicity in employment testing. Study 1 used archival data from a company‐specific cognitive ability test, demonstrating score increases (greater for some minorities) when applicants completed demographic items after a cognitive skills test, rather than before the test. The first experiment (Study 2) used college students taking the same company‐specific test with inconclusive results. Possible reasons dictated the design of a second experiment with a college population (Study 3). This study used the Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT) and investigated priming through positioning of demographic items, as well as high/low threat. Positioning of the demographic items after the WPT was associated with an increase in test scores.
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Since Hough et al. (2001), a sizable body of evidence has supported the effects of stereotype threat, but it is recognised that stereotype threat does not fully explain group mean score differences, and some research suggests its effects are overstated.
“Since then, whilst a sizable body of evidence has supported the effects of stereotype threat, it is recognised that it does not fully explain group mean score differences (e.g., Kirnan et al., 2009) and some research suggests effects are overstated (e.g., Finnigan & Corker, 2016).”
From Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review (2025) · cites this paper as Kirnan et al., 2009
Cites
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
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Activating stereotypes undermines task performance expectations
Stangor, C., Carr, C., & Kiang, L. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.5.1191 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
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“The effects of stereotype threat might slightly increase these effects for some individuals over others, but according to our research and that of other researchers, the effects are not strong (Mayer & Hanges, 2003; Nguyen et al., 2003; Ployhart et al., 2003; Sackett, 2003).”
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Stereotype threat in organizations: implications for equity and performance
Walton, G. M., Murphy, M. C., & Ryan, A. M. (2015) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111322 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
“…testing (Hough et al. 2001), the role of stereotype threat as a contributing factor to such differences has been a subject of considerable speculation but relatively little direct empirical investigation in actual hiring contexts (see Chung et al. 2010; Kirnan et al. 2009 for exceptions).”
BackgroundShewach, O. R., Sackett, P. R., & Quint, S. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000420 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
VanLandingham, H. B., Ellison, R. L., Laique, A., Cladek, A., Khan, H. M., Gonzalez, C., & Dunn, M. R. (2021) · The Clinical Neuropsychologist · doi:10.1080/13854046.2021.1947388 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“…of psychology including, though not limited to, neuropsychological assessment, social psychology, industrial/organizational psychology, educational development, and psychopathology (e.g., Henry et al., 2010; Inzlicht & Schmader 2012; Kirnan et al., 2009; Smith & Hung, 2008; Thames et al., 2013).”
Publication bias and stereotype threat research: A reply to Zigerell.
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Stereotype Threat and Psychosocial Outcomes Among African Americans: A Population-Based Approach
Whaley, A. L. (2019) · Journal of African American Studies · doi:10.1007/s12111-019-09456-4 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Stereotype threat in workplace assessments.
Ryan, A. M., & Sackett, P. R. (2013) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/14047-036 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
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Self-citationThe Effects of Stereotype Threat on MIS Students: An Initial Investigation
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Against the Deselection of the Stereotype Threat Agenda
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Factors Related to Mean Score Group Differences on Cognitive Ability Tests: A Systematic Review
Cuppello, S., Zibarras, L. D., & Corr, P. J. (2025) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-025-00504-5
Whaley, A. L. (2017) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-017-9415-9 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
- Authors
- Kirnan, J. P., Alfieri, J. A., Bragger, J. D., & Harris, R. S.
- Affiliations
- The College of New Jersey (US)
- Montclair State University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Bragger, Jennifer DeNicolis
- Venue
- Journal of Applied Social Psychology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2009-02
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 359-388
- ISSN
- 0021-9029 (ISSN-L)
- 1559-1816
- OpenAlex
- W2094987720
- Cited by
- 14
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2021: 1 · 2019: 2 · 2017: 2 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 2 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 2.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Applied Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Career Development and Diversity
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Names, Identity, and Discrimination Research
- Keywords
- stereotype threat, employment testing, cognitive ability tests, Wonderlic Personnel Test, priming, test score inflation, sex differences, ethnic minorities, university students
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