The DOI matches its Crossref record; 49 of the 51 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Using Propensity Scores to Help Design Observational Studies: Application to the Tobacco Litigation
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Nearly all analyses show Rubin's B<25%, Rubin's R of 0.5–2, and a percentage bias of <10% for each covariate (Fig. 1) (Morgan, 2018; Rubin, 2001).”
From Longitudinal associations between reading for pleasure and child maladjustment: Results from a propensity score matching analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Rubin, 2001
In the citing paper
“We used directed acyclic graphs to identify factors that could be associated with both reading for pleasure and children's strengths and difficulties, or with children's strengths and difficulties only based on previous empirical research (Brookhart et al., 2006; Caliendo and Kopeinig, 2008; Rubin, 2001; Sauer and VanderWeele, 2013).”
From Longitudinal associations between reading for pleasure and child maladjustment: Results from a propensity score matching analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Rubin, 2001
In the citing paper
“Secondly, this process of variable selection can be based on previous research [59].”
Citations
Cites
The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects
ROSENBAUM, P. R., & RUBIN, D. B. (1983) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/70.1.41 · Cited by 31,241
Self-citationRosenbaum, P. R., & Rubin, D. B. (1985) · The American Statistician · doi:10.2307/2683903 · Cited by 6,472
Self-citation(1976) · Annals of Economic and Social Measurement · Cited by 5,035
A generalization of sampling without replacement from a finite universe
Horvitz, D. G., & Thompson, D. J. (1952) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1952.10483446 · Cited by 4,293
Reducing Bias in Observational Studies Using Subclassification on the Propensity Score
Rosenbaum, P. R., & Rubin, D. B. (1984) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1984.10478078 · Cited by 3,082
Self-citationA Generalization of Sampling Without Replacement From a Finite Universe
Horvitz, D. G., & Thompson, D. J. (1952) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2280784 · Cited by 3,011
Causal effects in nonexperimental studies: Reevaluating the evaluation of training programs
Dehejia, R. H., & Wahba, S. (1999) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1999.10473858 · Cited by 2,395
Card, D., & Krueger, A. B. (2000) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.90.5.1397 · Cited by 2,228
Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania
Card, D., & Krueger, A. B. (1993) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w4509 · Cited by 2,072
The role of the propensity score in estimating dose-response functions
Imbens, G. W. (2000) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/87.3.706 · Cited by 1,779
Research works printed but not linked: 10
- AHCPR, “National medical expenditure survey, calendar year 1987,” Center for General Health Services Research, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, Public Health Service: Rockville,MD, 1992.
- D. J. Benjamin, “Does 401(k) eligibility increase net national savings?: reducing bias in the eligibility effect estimate,” A. B. Honors Thesis in Economics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1999.
- GAO (U.S. General Accounting Office), “Breast conservation versus mastectomy: patient survival in day-to-day medical practice and randomized studies,” Report #GAO-PEMD-95-9, U.S. General Accounting Office: Washington, D.C., 1995.
- G. W. Harrison, ‘Expert Report, April 27, 1998: “Health care expenditures attributable to smoking in Oklahoma,”’ The State of Oklahoma, ex rel., et al., Plaintiffs, vs. Reynolds Tobacco Co., et al., Defendants, Case No. CJ-96-1499-L, District Court of Cleveland County, Oklahoma, 1998.
- J. Hill, D. B. Rubin and N. Thomas, “The design of the New York school choice scholarship program evaluation,” in Research Designs: Inspired by the Work of Donald Campbell, (L. Bickman, ed.), Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA, 155-180, 1999.
- L. Roseman, “Reducing bias in the estimate of the difference in survival in observational studies using subclassification on the propensity score,” Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Statistics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1998.
- P. R. Rosenbaum and D. B. Rubin, “Constructing a control group using multivariate matched sampling incorporating the propensity score,” The American Statistician, 39, pp. 33-38, 1985. · DOI
- D. B. Rubin, “The use of matched sampling and regression adjustment in observational studies,” Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Statistics, Harvard University: Cambridge, MA, 1970.
- D. B. Rubin, “William, G. Cochran's contributions to the design, analysis, and evaluation of observational studies,” in W. G. Cochran's Impact on Statistics ( Rao and Sedransk, eds.), John Wiley, New York, pp. 37-69, 1984.
- D. B. Rubin, “Statistical assumptions in the estimation of the causal effects of smoking due to the conduct of the tobacco industry,” in Social Science Methodology in the New Millennium. Proceedings of the Fifth International Conference on Logic and Methodology (J. Blasius, J. Hox, E. de Leeuw and P. Schmidt, eds.), October 6, 2000, Cologne, Germany, 1-22, 2000b.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 1,001
Bayesian Model Averaging for Propensity Score Analysis
Kaplan, D. E., & Chen, J. (2014) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2014.928492 · Cited by 31
“According to the balance criteria presented in Rubin (2001), the average variance ratios in the treatment group and control group across all the covariates fall in the acceptable range (between 1/2 and 2) for all the examined propensity score approaches.”
MethodThe Effect of the Nepal Community Forestry Program on Equity in Benefit Sharing
Luintel, H., BLUFFSTONE, R. A., Scheller, R. M., & Adhikari, B. (2017) · The Journal of Environment & Development · doi:10.1177/1070496517707305 · Cited by 29
“25 standardized mean difference (SMD) as a cutoff point for matching adjustment, which is a common numerical balance diagnostic criterion, to check whether matching is satisfactory and acceptable (Rubin, 2001).”
MethodInfluentialVocational training and employability: Evaluation evidence from Romania
Popescu, M. E., & Roman, M. (2017) · Evaluation and Program Planning · doi:10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2017.11.001 · Cited by 27
Paid parental leave and families’ living arrangements
Cygan‐Rehm, K., Kuehnle, D., & Riphahn, R. T. (2018) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2018.05.008 · Cited by 27
“Furthermore, the standardized differences (Rubin 2001) are always below the threshold value of 0.2.”
BackgroundInfluentialGender Gap in Personal Bankruptcy Risks: Empirical Evidence from Singapore
Agarwal, S. D., He, J., Sing, T. F., & Zhang, J. (2016) · European Finance Review · doi:10.1093/rof/rfw063 · Cited by 26
Pitt, B., Ahmed, A., Love, T. E., Krum, H., Nicolau, J. C., Silva‐Cardoso, J., Parkhomenko, A. N., Aschermann, M., Corbalán, R., Solomon, H., et al. (2008) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.107.109314 · Cited by 28
“2 * 28 ( 5 ) 28 (4) 0.812 27 (4) 26 (4) 0.738”
InfluentialImpact of industrial logging concession on deforestation and forest degradation in the DRC
Chervier, C., Ximenes, A. C., Mihigo, B.-P. N., & Doumenge, C. (2023) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2023.106393 · Cited by 26
Lee, D. Y., Andreescu, C., Aizenstein, H. J., Karim, H. T., Mizuno, A. N., Kolobaric, A., Yoon, S., Kim, Y., Lim, J., Hwang, E. J., et al. (2023) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2439 · Cited by 26
“After PS matching, a standardised difference of 0.25 for every covariate was considered negligible [20].”
InfluentialAre children with IgA nephropathy different from adult patients?
Su, B., Jiang, Y., Li, Z., Zhou, J., Rong, L., Feng, S., Zhong, F., Sun, S., Zhang, D., Xia, Z., et al. (2024) · Pediatric Nephrology · doi:10.1007/s00467-024-06361-1 · Cited by 29
“We chose the recommended range of − 0.25 to 0.25 as the good balance limit for the standardized mean differences [27, 28].”
MethodInfluentialMarsiglia, F. F., Ayers, S. L., Gance‐Cleveland, B., Mettler, K., & Booth, J. M. (2011) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-011-0263-0 · Cited by 26
“PSM is more effective than regression when substantial differences on covariates exist between the treatment group and the control group (Rubin 2001; Koh and Testa 2008).”
Cohen, J. B., Eddinger, K. C., Shelton, B. A., Locke, J. E., Forde, K. A., & Sawinski, D. L. (2017) · Clinical Kidney Journal · doi:10.1093/ckj/sfx048 · Cited by 26
“We assessed for balance and bias using t-testing for equality of the means in the two groups, standardized difference between the two groups, the variance ratio between the two groups (for continuous covariates) [19], visual examination of histograms of propensity scores between the two exposure groups (Supplementary…”
MethodA comprehensive care plan that reduces readmissions after acute exacerbations of COPD
Ohar, J. A., Loh, C. H., Lenoir, K. M., Wells, B. J., & Peters, S. P. (2018) · Respiratory Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2018.06.014 · Cited by 26
Effects of an interdisciplinary approach to parental representation in child welfare
Gerber, L. A., Pang, Y. C., Ross, T., Guggenheim, M., Pecora, P. J., & Miller, J. (2019) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.04.022 · Cited by 26
“We note, however, that variance ratios are insignificant for binary variables (Rosenbaum & Rubin, 1983; Rubin, 2001; Stuart & Rubin, 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialDu, X., Сун, Л., Duivesteijn, W., Nikolaev, A. G., & Pechenizkiy, M. (2021) · Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery · doi:10.1007/s10618-021-00759-3 · Cited by 40
“Various similarity measures are applied to achieve better matching results and reduce the estimation error, e.g. Mahalanobis distance and propensity score matching methods are proposed for population causal effect inference (Rubin, 2001; Diamond and Sekhon, 2013).”
MethodLu, N. T., Xu, Y., & Yue, L. Q. (2019) · Statistics in Biopharmaceutical Research · doi:10.1080/19466315.2019.1647873 · Cited by 27
“The importance of the separation of study design and outcome analysis is emphasized by Rubin (2001, 2007, 2008) among others.”
BackgroundSenda, A., Endo, A., Tachimori, H., Fushimi, K., & Otomo, Y. (2020) · Critical Care · doi:10.1186/s13054-020-03188-8 · Cited by 27
Occupational Licensing and the Skills Mismatch of Highly Educated Migrants
Tani, M. (2020) · British Journal of Industrial Relations · doi:10.1111/bjir.12574 · Cited by 23
Knight, C. (2021) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12408 · Cited by 28
“The table also includes Rubin’s B and R. Rubin’s B is the ‘absolute standardised difference of the means of the linear index of the propensity score in the treated and non-treated group’ (Rubin, 2001) it is suggested that this should be less than 25.”
BackgroundInfluentialJorgensen, C., & Wells, J. (2021) · Journal of Experimental Criminology · doi:10.1007/s11292-021-09464-z · Cited by 32
“The advised caliper as described by Rubin (2001) was .0525 for this study.”
MethodTitle: Holistic governance strategy to reduce carbon intensity
Zhang, C., Zhao, Z., Wang, Q., & Xu, B. (2022) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121600 · Cited by 26
Corporate diversification and labor investment efficiency: Evidence from China
Bai, M., Fu, Y., & Sun, M. (2023) · Economic Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.econmod.2023.106482 · Cited by 26
Burt, M. (2012) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201100100 · Cited by 27
Autoimmune hypothyroidism and breast cancer in the elderly
Sandhu, M. K., Brezden‐Masley, C., Lipscombe, L. L., Zagorski, B., & Booth, G. L. (2008) · Breast Cancer Research and Treatment · doi:10.1007/s10549-008-0104-4 · Cited by 26
“who most closely resembled the LT4 users group [15].”
BackgroundChoi, J. Y., Kong, K. A., Chang, Y. J., Jho, H. J., Ahn, E. M., Choi, S., Park, S., & Lee, M. K. (2017) · European Journal of Cancer Care · doi:10.1111/ecc.12771 · Cited by 26
“Thus, in complimentary analysis, we used propensity score matching (Rosenbaum & Rubin, 1983; Rubin, 2001) to compare the outcome of the two groups hospitalised for 22 to 84 days (36.”
MethodInfluentialFirm size, market conditions and takeover likelihood
Tunyi, A. A. (2019) · Review of Accounting and Finance · doi:10.1108/raf-07-2018-0145 · Cited by 26
PREPAID ELECTRICITY PLAN AND ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION BEHAVIOR
Qiu, Y. L., Xing, B., & Wang, Y. D. (2016) · Contemporary Economic Policy · doi:10.1111/coep.12170 · Cited by 28
Ortagus, J. C. (2018) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s11162-018-9495-1 · Cited by 28
Generative AI for Pull Request Descriptions: Adoption, Impact, and Developer Interventions
Xiao, T., Hata, H., Treude, C., & Matsumoto, K. (2024) · Proceedings of the ACM on Software Engineering · doi:10.1145/3643773 · Cited by 29
“Through this weighting scheme, the PSW method aims to construct a balanced pseudo-population in which the distribution of observed covariates is equivalent across both treatment and control groups [Rosenbaum and Rubin 1983; Rubin 2001].”
Cosman, F., Oates, M. K., Betah, D., Timoshanko, J., Wang, Z., Ferrari, S., & McClung, M. R. (2024) · Journal of Bone and Mineral Research · doi:10.1093/jbmr/zjae116 · Cited by 29
“Several statistical techniques (PSW and PSM) were used to provide well balanced cohorts with absolute SMDs 0.1 for almost all variables as recommended, 39 and these produced BMD and fracture outcomes that were very similar.”
MethodInfluentialThe impact of Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana on Indian households
Asharaf, N., & Tol, R. S. J. (2024) · Economic Analysis and Policy · doi:10.1016/j.eap.2024.09.026 · Cited by 32
Born to behave: Home CEOs and financial misconduct*
Lei, Z., Petmezas, D., Rau, P., & Yang, C. (2025) · Review of accounting studies · doi:10.1007/s11142-025-09870-y · Cited by 19
“In the first analysis, following Rubin (2001) and Austin (2011), we examine the distribution of the control variables after entropy balancing and ensure that none of the standardized differences and variance ratios is outside of the vertical bands (see Table IA1 in the internet appendix).”
Bangalore, S., Ogedegbe, G. G., Gyamfi, J., Guo, Y., Roy, J. A., Goldfeld, K. S., Torgersen, C., Capponi, L. J., Phillips, C. J., & Shah, N. R. (2015) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2015.04.034 · Cited by 26
Thayer, S., Chow, W. S., Korrer, S., & Aguilar, R. B. (2016) · Current Medical Research and Opinion · doi:10.1185/03007995.2016.1159954 · Cited by 24
Miraldo, M., Propper, C., & Williams, R. I. (2018) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.09.028 · Cited by 24
Blankestein, A. M. M. M., van der Rijken, R., Eeren, H. V., Lange, A. M. C., Scholte, R. H. J., Moonen, X., Vuyst, K. D., Leunissen, J., & Didden, R. (2019) · Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1111/jar.12551 · Cited by 29
“After estimation of the PS, this score can be used to balance the two treatment conditions in order to allow for a comparison on the treatment outcomes (Austin, 2011; Rubin, 2001).”
MethodTsiachristas, A., Ellis, G., Buchanan, S., Langhorne, P., Stott, D. J., & Shepperd, S. (2019) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-023350 · Cited by 22
“5 and 2 to indicate sufficient balance.(9) Third, we chose the PSM technique that had the lowest values on these performance indicators in each of the three Health Boards.”
MethodWater utility consolidation: Are economies of scale realized?
Klien, M., & Michaud, D. (2019) · Utilities Policy · doi:10.1016/j.jup.2019.100972 · Cited by 25
Intranasal Corticosteroids Are Associated with Better Outcomes in Coronavirus Disease 2019
Strauss, R. A., Jawhari, N., Attaway, A. H., Hu, B., Jehi, L. E., Milinovich, A., Ortega, V. E., & Zein, J. (2021) · The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology In Practice · doi:10.1016/j.jaip.2021.08.007 · Cited by 27
Main, J. B., Wang, Y., & Tan, L. (2021) · Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s11162-021-09655-7 · Cited by 28
“Previous studies have used cutoff values ranging from 0.1 to 0.25 to demonstrate covariate balance (e.g., Linden & Samuels, 2013; Normand et al., 2001; Rubin, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialMak, H. W., Coulter, R., & Fancourt, D. E. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11740-6 · Cited by 27
The Electoral Consequences of Household Indebtedness under Austerity
Wiedemann, A. (2020) · American Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1111/ajps.12708 · Cited by 29
Sommer, A., Peters, A., Rommel, M., Cyrys, J., Grallert, H., Haller, D., Müller, C. L., & Bind, M. (2022) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1010044 · Cited by 26
“In such cases, Rosenbaum [74] has recommended to consider sensitivity analyses of how the Fisher-exact p-value would change, had the intervention assignment been plausibly different (see also Bind & Rubin [45]).”
BackgroundInfluentialOutcomes of Heart Transplantation Using a Temperature-controlled Hypothermic Storage System
Zhu, Y., Shudo, Y., He, H., Kim, J. Y., Elde, S., Williams, K. M., Walsh, S. K., Koyano, T. K., Guenthart, B. A., & Woo, Y.-P. J. (2022) · Transplantation · doi:10.1097/tp.0000000000004416 · Cited by 25
Cash, cars, and condoms: Economic factors in disadvantaged adolescent women’s condom use
Rosenbaum, J., Zenilman, J., Rose, E., Wingood, G., & DiClemente, R. (2012) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.12.012 · Cited by 21
“The remaining 522 control respondents were given a weight of p^/(1 – p^), where p^ is the estimated propensity score (31, 32).”
Padgett, R. D., Salisbury, M. H., An, B. P., & Pascarella, E. T. (2010) · New Directions for Institutional Research · doi:10.1002/ir.370 · Cited by 25
The effects of early grade retention: Effect modification by prior achievement and age
Vandecandelaere, M., Vansteelandt, S., Fraine, B. D., & Damme, J. V. (2015) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2015.10.004 · Cited by 31
Effects of honours programme participation in higher education: a propensity score matching approach
Kool, A., Mainhard, T., Jaarsma, D. A. D. C., van Beukelen, P., & Brekelmans, M. (2017) · Higher Education Research & Development · doi:10.1080/07294360.2017.1304362 · Cited by 25
“Overall, the three criteria outlined by Rubin (2001) were met, indicating adequate matching of the groups.”
MethodBangalore, S., Guo, Y., Samadashvili, Z., & Hannan, E. L. (2019) · The American Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2019.10.022 · Cited by 25
Propensity-Matched Outcomes of Transcarotid Artery Revascularization Versus Carotid Endarterectomy
Yee, E. J., Wang, S. K., Timsina, L., Ruiz-Herrera, S., Liao, J. L., Donde, N. N., Fajardo, A. C., & Motaganahalli, R. L. (2020) · Journal of Surgical Research · doi:10.1016/j.jss.2019.12.003 · Cited by 25
Through the Looking Glass: Estimating Effects of Medical Homes for People with Severe Mental Illness
Domino, M. E., Kilany, M., Wells, R. S., & MORRISSEY, J. P. (2016) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.12585 · Cited by 24
“Means are typically assumed to be balanced if their standardized difference is less than 10 (d’Agostino 1998; Rubin 2001).”
BackgroundStearns, S. C., Dalton, K., Holmes, M., & Seagrave, S. (2006) · Medical Care Research and Review · doi:10.1177/1077558706290944 · Cited by 24
“While propensity-score methods are not able to control for unobserved variables, they have been used successfully to adjust for patient selection in a number of applications (Rosenbaum and Rubin 1984; D’Agostino 1998; Hirano and Imbens 2001; Rubin 2001).”
MethodDigoxin Use and Outcomes in Patients With Heart Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction
Qamer, S. Z., Malik, A. A., Bayoumi, E., Lam, P. H., Singh, S. N., Packer, M., Kanonidis, I. E., Morgan, C. J., Abdelmawgoud, A., Allman, R. M., et al. (2019) · The American Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2019.05.012 · Cited by 24
Radičić, D. (2019) · Science and Public Policy · doi:10.1093/scipol/scz026 · Cited by 24
Chen, X., Higgins, E. J., Xia, H., & Zou, H. (2019) · Review of Financial Studies · doi:10.1093/rfs/hhz067 · Cited by 24
Does health insurance improve health for all? Heterogeneous effects on children in Ghana
Bagnoli, L. S. (2019) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2019.104636 · Cited by 27
Thyroid Hormone Changes in Early Pregnancy Along With the COVID-19 Pandemic
Lin, T., Zhang, C., Zhang, H., Wang, Y., Chen, L., Dennis, C., Huang, H., & Wu, Y. (2020) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2020.606723 · Cited by 24
COVID-19 Lockdown Increased the Risk of Preterm Birth
Lin, T.-T., Zhang, C., Chen, L., Li, J., Lin, X.-H., Pan, J.-X., Dennis, C., Mol, B. W., Huang, H.-F., & Wu, Y.-T. (2021) · Frontiers in Medicine · doi:10.3389/fmed.2021.705943 · Cited by 25
Li, C., Ferro, A., Mhatre, S. K., Lu, D., Lawrance, M., Li, X., Li, S., Allen, S. M., Desai, J., Fakih, M., et al. (2022) · Communications Medicine · doi:10.1038/s43856-022-00155-y · Cited by 24
Banking liberalization and corporate tax planning: Evidence from natural experiments
Chen, S., Ma, H., Teng, H., & Wu, Q. (2022) · Journal of Corporate Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jcorpfin.2022.102264 · Cited by 24
Mussa, E. C., Palermo, T., Ángeles, G., Kibur, M., Otchere, F., Amhara ISNP Evaluation Team, Gavrilovic, M., Valli, E., Waidler, J., Quiñones, S., et al. (2023) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-023-09024-3 · Cited by 24
Credit, K., & Lehnert, M. (2023) · Journal of Geographical Systems · doi:10.1007/s10109-023-00413-0 · Cited by 27
“…assignment and the potential outcomes, either by care-fully matching treatment and control observations using a propensity score methodology (Rubin 2001) or by including the pre-treatment confounders in the estimation of the causal model, after which the model can be said to fulfil the…”
IMPLEMENTATION DIFFERENCES OF TWO STAFFING MODELS IN THE GERMAN HOME VISITING PROGRAM “PRO KIND”
Brand, T., & Jungmann, T. (2012) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.21489 · Cited by 24
Covariate Selection in Propensity Scores Using Outcome Proxies
Kelcey, B. (2011) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2011.570164 · Cited by 24
“Further, researchers may also choose to emphasize (empirically) important covariates by including their higher order moments and interactions and extending the concept of balance beyond similar means to include similar variances and transformations across treatment groups (e.g., Rubin, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialRacial differences in presentations and predictors of acute pain after motor vehicle collision
Beaudoin, F. L., Gutman, R., Zhai, W., Merchant, R. C., Clark, M. A., Bollen, K. A., Hendry, P. L., Kurz, M. C., Lewandowski, C., Pearson, C., et al. (2018) · Pain · doi:10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001186 · Cited by 26
Banking on "Mobile Money": The Implications of Mobile Money Services on the Value Chain
Dong, Y., Chung, M., Zhou, C., & Venkataraman, S. (2019) · Manufacturing & Service Operations Management · doi:10.1287/msom.2018.0717 · Cited by 28
Reward type and performance: An examination of organizational wellness programs
Heninger, W. G., Smith, S. D., & Wood, D. A. (2019) · Management Accounting Research · doi:10.1016/j.mar.2019.02.001 · Cited by 24
Tanner‐Smith, E. E., & Lipsey, M. W. (2014) · Peabody Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0161956x.2014.895647 · Cited by 24
Evidence on scaling forest restoration from the Atlantic Forest Restoration Pact in Brazil
Toto, R., Alix‐Garcia, J., Sims, K. R. E., Coutinho, B. H., Brenes, C. L. M., Pugliese, L., & Mendes, A. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-59194-3 · Cited by 27
“Supplementary Table 5 also shows that variance ratios of pre-treatment values between treated and untreated groups are all very close to one (indicating distributional similarity) andquitefarfromratios thatmight indicatedistributional “ imbalance ” (ratios like 2 or 0.5 40 ).”
InfluentialA longitudinal study of children’s social behaviors and their causal relationship to reading growth
Lim, H. J., & Kim, J. (2010) · Asia Pacific Education Review · doi:10.1007/s12564-010-9124-y · Cited by 23
“Nearest neighbor matching within caliper (Rosenbaum and Rubin 1985; Rubin 2001 ) was used to avoid unrealistic matches by setting a tolerable limit for each treated subject.”
MethodSengewald, M.-A. D.-P., Steiner, P. M., & Pohl, S. (2018) · British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bmsp.12146 · Cited by 33
“After controlling for the estimated PS, balance is achieved if the distribution of all covariates is identical or at least similar in the treatment and control group (Rubin, 2001; Steiner & Cook, 2013; Stuart & Rubin, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodKim, S. Y., & Lee, D. (2019) · Review of Public Personnel Administration · doi:10.1177/0734371x18823250 · Cited by 27
“…with matching, traditional regression models do not explicitly clarify the region of common support, and thus, biased results may be obtained if the treated and untreated groups are very different in terms of the means and variances of covariates (Rubin, 2001; Rubin & Thomas, 2000; Stuart, 2010).”
BackgroundResultWu, L., Ge, L., Qin, Y., Huang, M., Chen, J., Yang, Y., & Zhong, J. (2019) · Cancer Management and Research · doi:10.2147/cmar.s203880 · Cited by 25
“The PSM is a conditional probability of having a particular exposure given a set of baseline measured covariates.(18,19) The PSM was estimated with the use of a nonparsimonious multivariable logistic-regression model with the group as the dependent variable and all the baseline characteristics outlined in Table 1 as c…”
MethodEstimating the Impact of In-Hospital Infant Formula Supplementation on Breastfeeding Success
Whipps, M. D. M., Yoshikawa, H., Demirci, J. R., & Hill, J. (2021) · Breastfeeding Medicine · doi:10.1089/bfm.2020.0194 · Cited by 23
Joshi, K. C., Grewal, P., Beer‐Furlan, A., Vargas, A., Osteraas, N. D., Dafer, R. M., & Chen, M. (2021) · Journal of NeuroInterventional Surgery · doi:10.1136/neurintsurg-2021-018211 · Cited by 22
Solar‐powered cold‐storage and agrifood market modernization in Nigeria
Takeshima, H., Yamauchi, F., Edeh, H., & Hernandez, M. A. (2023) · Agricultural Economics · doi:10.1111/agec.12771 · Cited by 25
German financial state aid during Covid-19 pandemic: Higher impact among digitalized self-employed
Bertschek, I., Block, J., Kritikos, A. S., & Stiel, C. (2023) · Entrepreneurship and Regional Development · doi:10.1080/08985626.2023.2196267 · Cited by 23
“The ratio between the propensity score’s variances of both groups, commonly referred to as Rubin’s R, is 1.28 and, thus, well inside of the optimal interval [.5;2] (Rubin 2001).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEfficacy of Early Catheter Ablation for Atrial Fibrillation After Admission for Heart Failure
Sakamoto, K., Tohyama, T., Ide, T., Mukai, Y., Enzan, N., Nagata, T., Ikeda, M., Takase, S., Nagayama, T., Fujino, T., et al. (2023) · JACC. Clinical electrophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacep.2023.05.038 · Cited by 23
US Political Corruption and Quarterly Conference Calls
Chourou, L., Hossain, A., & Jha, A. (2024) · Journal of Banking & Finance · doi:10.1016/j.jbankfin.2024.107108 · Cited by 13
Bini, S. A., Inacio, M. C. S., & Cafri, G. (2014) · The Journal of Arthroplasty · doi:10.1016/j.arth.2014.12.006 · Cited by 23
A Propensity-Matched Study of Elevated Jugular Venous Pressure and Outcomes in Chronic Heart Failure
Meyer, P., Ekundayo, O. J., Adamopoulos, C., Mujib, M. U., Aban, I., White, M., Aronow, W. S., & Ahmed, A. (2009) · The American Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2008.11.045 · Cited by 23
Kainz, K., & Pan, Y. (2014) · Early Childhood Research Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2014.06.005 · Cited by 26
Inferring Causality through Counterfactuals in Observational Studies - Some Epistemological Issues
Federica Russo, B., Wunsch, G. J., & Mouchart, M. (2011) · Bulletin of Sociological Methodology/Bulletin de Méthodologie Sociologique · doi:10.1177/0759106311408891 · Cited by 23
Higher Health Care Costs in Middle-aged US Adults With Hearing Loss
Simpson, A. N., Simpson, K. N., & Dubno, J. R. (2016) · JAMA Otolaryngology–Head & Neck Surgery · doi:10.1001/jamaoto.2016.0188 · Cited by 23
Analysis of Electric Vehicle Purchaser Satisfaction and Rejection Reasons
Jabbari, P., Chernicoff, W., & MacKenzie, D. (2017) · Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · doi:10.3141/2628-12 · Cited by 23
“Matching has been widely applied to problems such as measuring changes in vehicle technology (24, 25), the effects of smoking (26), the effects of carsharing (27) and residential location choice (28) on travel demand, and the economic impacts of new roads (29), among many other problems.”
BackgroundMethodDo Natural Disasters Affect Voting Behavior? Evidence from Croatian Floods
Bovan, K., Banai, B., & Banai, I. P. (2018) · PLoS Currents · doi:10.1371/currents.dis.cbf57c8ac3b239ba51ccc801d3362c07 · Cited by 22
Wang, H., Yuan, H., Li, X., & Li, H. (2019) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-019-00677-3 · Cited by 23
“5 and 2 for the samples to be considered sufficiently balanced (Rubin 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialBack to school: Labor-market returns to higher vocational schooling
Böckerman, P., Haapanen, M., & Jepsen, C. A. (2019) · Labour Economics · doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2019.101758 · Cited by 25
“The variables include tenure (0–10), number of degree-leading education programs attended, study loan, exam score in English language and mathematics, spouse’s and parents’ characteristics, NUTS-4 region of residence, occupation, industry, and entry year. a p -value tests for the significance of difference in means be…”
MethodInfluentialWork Transitions, Gender, and Subjective Well-Being
Chung, H. Y., & Hahn, Y. (2020) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-020-09860-z · Cited by 23
“Both indices are measured before and after matching, and the treatment and control groups are considered as balanced if Rubin’s B is less than 25 and Rubin’s R is between 0.5 and 2 (Rubin 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialOgawa, T., Yoshii, T., Moriwaki, M., Morishita, S., Oh, Y., Miyatake, K., Nazarian, A., Shiba, K., Okawa, A., Fushimi, K., et al. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm9103203 · Cited by 23
“A propensity score is the conditional probability of having a specific exposure such as HA versus THA on a set of baseline measured covariates [23,24].”
BackgroundCardiovascular Safety of Hydroxychloroquine in US Veterans With Rheumatoid Arthritis
Faselis, C. J., Zeng‐Treitler, Q., Cheng, Y., Kerr, G. S., Nashel, D. J., Liappis, A. P., Weintrob, A., Karasik, P., Arundel, C., Boehm, D., et al. (2021) · Arthritis & Rheumatology · doi:10.1002/art.41803 · Cited by 23
“This probability can be estimated as propensity scores using measured baseline characteristics and can be used to match patients started on HCQ and patients not started on HCQ (19,20).”
BackgroundThe Interplay Between Uric Acid and Antioxidants in Relation to Physical Function in Older Persons
Ruggiero, C., Cherubini, A., Guralnik, J. M., Semba, R. D., Maggio, M. G., Ling, S. M., Lauretani, F., Bandinelli, S., Senin, U., & Ferrucci, L. (2007) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2007.01260.x · Cited by 23
“In addition, each antioxidant was regressed on UA and a propensity score, which summarized the confounding effect of all variables in the model.(29) The propensity score was estimated by regression of all covariates on UA.”
MethodHennig-Thurau, T., Herting, A. M., & Jütte, D. (2024) · Journal of Interactive Marketing · doi:10.1177/10949968241263353 · Cited by 20
“First, all standardized mean differences after matching fall below the threshold of .25, signifying a balanced matched sample as per Rubin (2001).”
Choi, Y.-S., Wu, Q.-Q., & Lee, J. (2025) · Journal of business research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.115094 · Cited by 19
The effect of cognitive reflection on the efficacy of impression management
Cardoso, R. L., Leite, R. D. O., & de Aquino, A. C. B. (2018) · Accounting Auditing & Accountability Journal · doi:10.1108/aaaj-10-2016-2731 · Cited by 22
“Another way to assess if there is randomization balance is the rule of thumb that the differences in means should be smaller than ¼ of the standard deviation (Rosenbaum & Rubin, 1985; Rubin, 2001).”
BackgroundOncological Impact of High Vascular Tie After Surgery for Rectal Cancer
Boström, P., Hultberg, D. K., Häggström, J., Haapamäki, M. M., Matthiessen, P., Rutegård, M., & Rutegård, M. (2019) · Annals of Surgery · doi:10.1097/sla.0000000000003663 · Cited by 22
“25, generally considered appropriate.(21,22) Subsequently, to assess the effect of tie level on the study outcomes, a Cox proportional-hazards regression was performed on the matched sample, including tie level as the only covariate.”
MethodRandom Forests Approach for Causal Inference with Clustered Observational Data
Suk, Y., Kang, H., & Kim, J. (2020) · Multivariate Behavioral Research · doi:10.1080/00273171.2020.1808437 · Cited by 21
“As a rule of thumb, a good balance for a covariate is when its absolute standardized mean difference is smaller than 0.1 and its variance ratio is in between 4/5 and 5/4 (Rubin, 2001; Shadish et al., 2008; Steiner et al., 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialWang, L., Motter, J. D., Bae, S., Ahn, J. B., Kanakry, J. A., Jackson, J. W., Schnitzler, M. A., Hess, G. P., Lentine, K. L., Stuart, E. A., et al. (2020) · Clinical Transplantation · doi:10.1111/ctr.14121 · Cited by 22
Matching methods in precision oncology: An introduction and illustrative example
Weymann, D., Laskin, J., Jones, S. J. M., Lim, H., Renouf, D., Roscoe, R., Schrader, K., Sun, S., Yip, S., Marra, M., et al. (2020) · Molecular Genetics & Genomic Medicine · doi:10.1002/mgg3.1554 · Cited by 19
“Given that the propensity score is a function of covariates rather than outcomes, repeated analyses attempting to balance covariate distributions across treated and control patients will not bias final effect estimates (Rubin, 2001).”
BackgroundYang, C., Zhang, Y., & Wang, S. (2022) · Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja · doi:10.1080/1331677x.2022.2150255 · Cited by 24
“To ensure the estimation quality of propensity score matching, the balance test was conducted from standardized deviation, mean, and likelihood ratio (LR) statistics, drawing on the trial of Rubin (2001).”
MethodGlobal value chains, productivity and markup: Evidence from India
Reddy, K., & Sasidharan, S. (2023) · International Review of Economics & Finance · doi:10.1016/j.iref.2023.10.005 · Cited by 22
Metadata
- Authors
- Rubin, D. B.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rubin, Donald B.
- ORCID
- Rubin, Donald B.
- Venue
- Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology
- Published
- 2001-12
- Volume
- 2
- Issue
- 3-4
- Pages
- 169-188
- ISSN
- 1387-3741 (ISSN-L)
- 1572-9400
- OpenAlex
- W2597503617
- Cited by
- 2,228
- References
- 51
- Citations by year
- 2026: 174 · 2025: 193 · 2024: 196 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 172 · 2021: 166 · 2020: 173 · 2019: 163 · 2018: 123 · 2017: 100 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 77 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 44
- FWCI
- 4.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- Locations
- Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
- Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
- Keywords
- propensity score, observational study design, covariate balance, matching, subclassification, weighting, diagnostic tables, treatment effect estimation, tobacco litigation, National Medical Expenditure Survey, causal inference
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
