Cited by 2,228Advanced Causal Inference TechniquesStatistical Methods in EpidemiologyStatistical Methods in Clinical Trials

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Using Propensity Scores to Help Design Observational Studies: Application to the Tobacco Litigation

Rubin, Donald B.·2001·Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology

DOI 10.1023/a:1020363010465

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The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects
ROSENBAUM, P. R., & RUBIN, D. B. (1983) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/70.1.41 · Cited by 31,241
Self-citation
Constructing a Control Group Using Multivariate Matched Sampling Methods That Incorporate the Propensity Score
Rosenbaum, P. R., & Rubin, D. B. (1985) · The American Statistician · doi:10.2307/2683903 · Cited by 6,472
Self-citation
Untitled work
(1976) · Annals of Economic and Social Measurement · Cited by 5,035
A generalization of sampling without replacement from a finite universe
Horvitz, D. G., & Thompson, D. J. (1952) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1952.10483446 · Cited by 4,293
Reducing Bias in Observational Studies Using Subclassification on the Propensity Score
Rosenbaum, P. R., & Rubin, D. B. (1984) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1984.10478078 · Cited by 3,082
Self-citation
A Generalization of Sampling Without Replacement From a Finite Universe
Horvitz, D. G., & Thompson, D. J. (1952) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.2307/2280784 · Cited by 3,011
Causal effects in nonexperimental studies: Reevaluating the evaluation of training programs
Dehejia, R. H., & Wahba, S. (1999) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1080/01621459.1999.10473858 · Cited by 2,395
Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast-Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania: Reply
Card, D., & Krueger, A. B. (2000) · American Economic Review · doi:10.1257/aer.90.5.1397 · Cited by 2,228
Minimum Wages and Employment: A Case Study of the Fast Food Industry in New Jersey and Pennsylvania
Card, D., & Krueger, A. B. (1993) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w4509 · Cited by 2,072
The role of the propensity score in estimating dose-response functions
Imbens, G. W. (2000) · Biometrika · doi:10.1093/biomet/87.3.706 · Cited by 1,779

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AHCPR, “National medical expenditure survey, calendar year 1987,” Center for General Health Services Research, Agency for Health Care Policy and Research, Public Health Service: Rockville,MD, 1992.
D. J. Benjamin, “Does 401(k) eligibility increase net national savings?: reducing bias in the eligibility effect estimate,” A. B. Honors Thesis in Economics, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1999.
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“and Rubin, D.B. (1985): “Constructing a control group using multivariate matched sampling methods that incorporate the propensity score,” The American Statistician 39(1), 33-38. Rubin, D.B. (2001): “Using propensity scores to help design observational studies: application to tobacco litigation,” Health Services & Outc…”
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“73,74,85,87,88).”
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“A ratio of the variances of the covariates after adjustment between .80 and 1.25 is desirable and those < .50 or > 2.0 are too extreme (Cochran 1965; Rubin 2001).”
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“25 was considered as an indicator of imbalance.(8)”
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“…the consistency of all the matching estimators based on the linear distance between individual scores such as nearest neighbour, caliper and kernel (Rubin 2001; Imbens and Rubin 2015).6 On the other hand, it allows easy identification of the region of common support by imposing a caliper (Austin…”
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“The absolute standardized difference inmeans of the propensity scores between the treated andmatched untreated groups, Rubin’s B is below 25 and the ratio of treated tomatched untreated variances of the propensity score, the Rubin’s R range between 0.5 and 2 as recommended (Rubin, 2001).”
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Method
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“The result confirms that the balancing property is satisfied as the thresholds for the variance ratio for balanced groups are 0.5 and 2 (Rubin, 2001; Stuart, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluential
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Li, H., & Yue, L. Q. (2023) · Pharmaceutical Statistics · doi:10.1002/pst.2294 · Cited by 14
Managerial flexibility, capacity investment, and inventory levels
Aral, K. D., Giambona, E., & Wassenhove, L. V. V. (2023) · Production and operations management · doi:10.1111/poms.14067 · Cited by 7
Research on the impact of internet use on fertilizer and pesticide inputs: Empirical evidence from China
Na, H., & Kang, J. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e20816 · Cited by 15
“If B 25 % and R within falls within the scope of [0.5, 2] [35], with all B-values less by 25 % and R-values ranging from 0.93 to 1.05.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Venture governance, CEO duality, and new venture performance
Li, M., Cao, Z. J., & Terjesen, S. A. (2024) · Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal · doi:10.1002/sej.1495 · Cited by 14
The impacts of rural development project on resilience to climatic disasters: The case of Bangladesh
Park, B., & Ochieng, H. K. (2024) · World Development · doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2024.106631 · Cited by 15
Tele-medicine controlled hospital at home is associated with better outcomes than hospital stay
Zychlinski, N., Fluss, R., Goldberg, Y., Zubli, D., Barkai, G., Zimlichman, E., & Segal, G. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0309077 · Cited by 15
Accounting comparability and customer concentration
Chircop, J., Nguyen, N. Q., & Nguyen, T. T. (2024) · Journal of Accounting and Public Policy · doi:10.1016/j.jaccpubpol.2024.107244 · Cited by 15
Third-Party Presence Effect with Propensity Score Matching
Diop, A., Le, K. T., & Traugott, M. W. (2015) · Journal of Survey Statistics and Methodology · doi:10.1093/jssam/smv005 · Cited by 15
Heparin Monotherapy or Bivalirudin During Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in Patients With Non–ST-Segment–Elevation Acute Coronary Syndromes or Stable Ischemic Heart Disease
Bangalore, S., Pencina, M. J., Kleiman, N. S., & Cohen, D. J. (2014) · Circulation Cardiovascular Interventions · doi:10.1161/circinterventions.113.001126 · Cited by 15
Reduced Prevalence of Obesity in 14 Disadvantaged Black Communities in the United States: A Successful 4-Year Place-Based Participatory Intervention
Liao, Y., Siegel, P. Z., Garraza, L. G., Xu, Y., Yin, S., Scardaville, M. C., Gebreselassie, T., & Stephens, R. L. (2016) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2016.303253 · Cited by 14
“For each community and year, we weighted BRFSS respondents in each subclass by the estimated number of individuals in that subclass in the REACH US population.(20) We estimated this number by using REACH US sampling weights.”
Profitability Effects and Fishery Subsidies: Average Treatment Effects Based on Propensity Scores
Duy, N. N., & Flaaten, O. (2016) · Marine Resource Economics · doi:10.1086/687930 · Cited by 15
“It is recommended that Rubin’s B be less than 25% and that Rubin’s R be between 0.5 and 2 for the samples to be considered sufficiently balanced (Rubin 2001). a Number of treated vessels falling outside the common support. b Rubin’s B value falling outside the limits.”
BackgroundInfluential
The Brief Symptom Inventory and the Outcome Questionnaire-45 in the Assessment of the Outcome Quality of Mental Health Interventions
Crameri, A., Schuetz, C., Andreae, A., Koemeda, M., Schulthess, P., Tschuschke, V., & von Wyl, A. (2016) · Psychiatry Journal · doi:10.1155/2016/7830785 · Cited by 19
“The adequacy of the matching procedure was checked using graphical visualizations of the propensity score distribution; the quality of the balance in the matched groups was examined through the standardized difference of means of each covariate [36, 37].”
Method
Impact of public intervention on micro and small enterprises performance in Ethiopia
Yonis, M. B., Woldehanna, T., & Amha, W. (2018) · International Journal of Emerging Markets · doi:10.1108/ijoem-10-2016-0259 · Cited by 20
Living with observational data in biological anthropology
Smith, R. J. (2019) · American Journal of Physical Anthropology · doi:10.1002/ajpa.23862 · Cited by 16
Metformin reduces risk of varicose veins in patients with type 2 diabetes
Tseng, C. (2019) · Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews · doi:10.1002/dmrr.3206 · Cited by 15
“5 and 2 are considered to indicate sufficient balance between the two groups.(16) Cumulative duration of metformin therapy was calculated and expressed in months.”
Background
Differences in cognitive performance between informal caregivers and non-caregivers
Falzarano, F. B., & Siedlecki, K. L. (2020) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2020.1749228 · Cited by 18
“According to Rubin (2001), standardized mean differences in propensity scores should be close to zero (d Neuropsychol Dev Cogn B Aging Neuropsychol Cogn.”
Background
Improving estimation of the association between alcohol use and intimate partner violence in low-income and middle-income countries
Greene, M. C., Heise, L., Musci, R. J., Wirtz, A. L., Johnson, R. M., Leoutsakos, J., Wainberg, M. L., & Tol, W. A. (2020) · Injury Prevention · doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2019-043433 · Cited by 15
Comparison of Crash Modification Factors for Engineering Treatments Estimated by Before–After Empirical Bayes and Propensity Score Matching Methods
Lan, B., & Srinivasan, R. (2020) · Transportation Research Record Journal of the Transportation Research Board · doi:10.1177/0361198120953778 · Cited by 15
Association of Diabetes and Admission Blood Glucose Levels with Short-Term Outcomes in Patients with Critical Illnesses
Lin, S., He, W., & Zeng, M. (2020) · Journal of Inflammation Research · doi:10.2147/jir.s287510 · Cited by 15
Robust Machine Learning for Treatment Effects in Multilevel Observational Studies Under Cluster-level Unmeasured Confounding
Suk, Y., & Kang, H. (2021) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/s11336-021-09805-x · Cited by 13
“1 standard deviation and the variance ratio lies between 4/5 and 5/4, we can achieve good balance of the covariates (Rubin, 2001; Shadish, Clark, & Steiner, 2008; Steiner, Cook, Shadish, & Clark, 2010) .”
BackgroundInfluential
Evaluating the performance of propensity score matching based approaches in individual patient data meta-analysis
Johara, F. T., Benedetti, A., Platt, R. W., Menzies, D., Viiklepp, P., Schaaf, H. S., & Chan, E. D. (2021) · BMC Medical Research Methodology · doi:10.1186/s12874-021-01452-1 · Cited by 15
Estimated causal effects of complementary feeding behaviors on early childhood diet quality in a US cohort
Switkowski, K. M., Aris, I. M., Gingras, V., Oken, E., & Young, J. G. (2022) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqac003 · Cited by 15
Investigating differences in treatment effect estimates between propensity score matching and weighting: a demonstration using STAR*D trial data
Ellis, A. R., Dusetzina, S. B., Hansen, R. A., Gaynes, B. N., Farley, J. F., & Stürmer‎, T. (2012) · Pharmacoepidemiology and Drug Safety · doi:10.1002/pds.3396 · Cited by 15
Adverse Outcomes of Anticoagulant Use among Hospitalized Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease: A Comparison of the Rates of Major Bleeding Events between Unfractionated Heparin and Enoxaparin
Sharif‐Askari, F. S., Sulaiman, S. A. S., Sharif‐Askari, N. S., Hussain, A. A. S., & Railey, M. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0106517 · Cited by 15
“Because anticoagulant users may differ in key baseline characteristics from those of non-users, and to allow for an unbiased comparison between these two groups, a propensity score-matching was performed [15,16].”
Background
Improving Middle School Quality in Poor Countries
McEwan, P. J., Murphy-Graham, E. E., Irribarra, D. T., Aguilar, C. R., & Rápalo, R. (2014) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/0162373714527786 · Cited by 16
“25 standard deviations for 24 variables, the threshold at which regression adjustment is especially sensitive to specification (Imbens & Wooldridge, 2008; Rubin, 2001; Stuart, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluential
Covariate Balance in Bayesian Propensity Score Approaches for Observational Studies
Chen, J., & Kaplan, D. E. (2014) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2014.911396 · Cited by 15
“According to the balance criteria presented in Rubin (2001), variance ratios for most of the covariates in the treatment group and control group fall in the acceptable range (between 1/2 and 2) except for a few levels of categorical covariates.”
Method
Effect of Optimization of Medical Treatment on Long-Term Survival of Patients With Heart Failure After Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator and Cardiac Resynchronization Device Implantation (from the French National EGB Database)
Massoullié, G., Chenaf, C., Mulliez, A., Rossignol, P., Ploux, S., Pereira, B., Reuillard, A., Jean, F., Andronache, M., Eschalier, A., et al. (2018) · The American Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2017.12.013 · Cited by 15
Good statistical practice in utilizing real-world data in a comparative study for premarket evaluation of medical devices
Lu, N. T., Xu, Y., & Yue, L. Q. (2019) · Journal of Biopharmaceutical Statistics · doi:10.1080/10543406.2019.1632880 · Cited by 15
“Such an approach includes two phases: study design and outcome analysis (Rubin 2001, 2007, 2008).”
Method
Assessing the impact of a minimum income scheme: the Basque Country case
de la Rica, S., & Gorjón, L. (2019) · SERIEs · doi:10.1007/s13209-019-00203-2 · Cited by 15
“…treatment effects using observational data since they enable observational studies to be designed along lines similar to randomised experiments (Rubin 2001).12 Rosenbaum and Rubin (1983) show that instead of conditioning on the covariates, conditioning on the probability of potential treatment…”
Method
Laparoscopic repair of perforated peptic ulcer is not prognostic factor for 30-day mortality (a nationwide prospective cohort study)
Zogovic, S., Bojesen, A. B., Andos, S., & Mortensen, F. V. (2019) · International Journal of Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.ijsu.2019.10.017 · Cited by 15
Hypokalaemia and Outcomes in Older Patients Hospitalized for Heart Failure
Valentová, M., Patel, S. S., Lam, P. H., Faselis, C. J., Arundel, C., Fonarow, G. C., Cheng, Y., Allman, R. M., von Haehling, S., Anker, S. D., et al. (2020) · ESC Heart Failure · doi:10.1002/ehf2.12666 · Cited by 15
Impacto das práticas agrícolas conservacionistas na produtividade da terra e no lucro dos estabelecimentos agropecuários brasileiros
Fortini, R. M., Braga, M. J., & de Freitas, C. O. (2020) · Revista de Economia e Sociologia Rural · doi:10.1590/1806-9479.2020.199479 · Cited by 19
Economic Evaluation of New Models of Care: Does the Decision Change Between Cost-Utility Analysis and Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis?
van den Bogaart, E. H. A., Kroese, M., Spreeuwenberg, M. D., Ruwaard, D., & Tsiachristas, A. (2021) · Value in Health · doi:10.1016/j.jval.2021.01.014 · Cited by 15
Objective study validity diagnostics: a framework requiring pre-specified, empirical verification to increase trust in the reliability of real-world evidence
Conover, M. M., Ryan, P. B., Chen, Y., Suchard, M. A., Hripcsak, G. M., & Schuemie, M. J. (2024) · Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association · doi:10.1093/jamia/ocae317 · Cited by 14
Not in my backyard? The local impact of wind and solar parks in Brazil
Scheifele, F., & Popp, D. C. (2025) · Energy Economics · doi:10.1016/j.eneco.2025.108481 · Cited by 14
Controlling Shareholders' Tax Incentives and Classification Shifting*
Chung, H., Choi, S., & Jung, W. (2020) · Contemporary Accounting Research · doi:10.1111/1911-3846.12654 · Cited by 14
Family changes and the willingness to take risks
Browne, M. J., Jäger, V., Richter, A., & Steinorth, P. (2021) · Journal of Risk & Insurance · doi:10.1111/jori.12341 · Cited by 25
“We find that the matching performs sufficiently well for all considered life events with standardized biases well below the acceptable thresholds as discussed in Rubin (2001). The potential disadvantages of matching are that we can only observe one treatment (in our case the treatments are the life events) at a time.”
Background
Robotic hybrid coronary revascularization versus conventional off‐pump coronary bypass surgery in women with two‐vessel disease
Torregrossa, G., Sá, M. P., den Eynde, J. V., Sicouri, S., Wertan, M. C., Ramlawi, B., & Sutter, F. P. (2021) · Journal of Cardiac Surgery · doi:10.1111/jocs.16146 · Cited by 14
“25 was considered an indicator of good balance between groups.(11) For the matched cohort (After Matching), data were again presented as described above.”
Method

Authors: Rubin, D. B.
Affiliations: Harvard University (US)
Corresponding author: Rubin, Donald B.
ORCID: Rubin, Donald B.
Venue: Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2001-12
Volume: 2
Issue: 3-4
Pages: 169-188
ISSN: 1387-3741 (ISSN-L)
1572-9400
DOI: 10.1023/a:1020363010465
OpenAlex: W2597503617
Cited by: 2,228
References: 51
Citations by year: 2026: 174 · 2025: 193 · 2024: 196 · 2023: 175 · 2022: 172 · 2021: 166 · 2020: 173 · 2019: 163 · 2018: 123 · 2017: 100 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 75 · 2014: 77 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 44
FWCI: 4.04
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining (tdm)
www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining (vor)
Locations: Health Services and Outcomes Research Methodology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Advanced Causal Inference Techniques
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Epidemiology
Physical Sciences › Mathematics › Statistics and Probability › Statistical Methods in Clinical Trials
Keywords: propensity score, observational study design, covariate balance, matching, subclassification, weighting, diagnostic tables, treatment effect estimation, tobacco litigation, National Medical Expenditure Survey, causal inference

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Using Propensity Scores to Help Design Observational Studies: Application to the Tobacco Litigation

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