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A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance
Abstract
A general theory of domain identification is used to describe achievement barriers still faced by women in advanced quantitative areas and by African Americans in school. The theory assumes that sustained school success requires identification with school and its subdomains; that societal pressures on these groups (e.g., economic disadvantage, gender roles) can frustrate this identification; and that in school domains where these groups are negatively stereotyped, those who have become domain identified face the further barrier of stereotype threat, the threat that others' judgments or their own actions will negatively stereotype them in the domain. Research shows that this threat dramatically depresses the standardized test performance of women and African Americans who are in the academic vanguard of their groups (offering a new interpretation of group differences in standardized test performance), that it causes disidentification with school, and that practices that reduce this threat can reduce these negative effects.
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“Furthermore, research that creates new groups in the laboratory has found that merely being made aware that there is a negative stereotype about your group's ability can cause social identity threat and identity incompatibility perceptions and thus reduce performance on relevant tasks (Leyens, Desert, Croizet, & Darcis, 2000;Steele, 1997).”
From Tackling Educational Inequalities with Social Psychology: Identities, Contexts, and Interventions (2021) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
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In the citing paper
“First, the perception that teachers have low expectations may exacerbate the harmful effects of stereotype threat , whereby low expectations either cause emotional responses that directly harm performance or cause students to disidentify with educational environments (Steele, 1997).”
From Who believes in me? The effect of student–teacher demographic match on teacher expectations (2016) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Importantly, mere awareness of gender stereotypes can in fl uence youths ' academic performance.”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
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In the citing paper
“Importantly, over time stereotype threat also has the potential to undermine students ' identi fi cation with the relevant academic domain (e.g., Steele, 1997), which may explain some of adolescent girls ' dampened interest in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fi elds and boys ' dampened interest in traditionally-feminine fi elds.”
From Gender and Education (2015) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
In the citing paper
“Indeed, stereotype threat dwells”
From Managing to clear the air: Stereotype threat, women, and leadership (2016) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
In the citing paper
“Stereotype threat-the potential that one could be judged in light of a negative stereotype about one's group-is a potent type of collective threat (Steele, 1997).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Steele, 1997
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Citations
Cites
Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans.
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Jensen, A. (1969) · Harvard Educational Review · doi:10.17763/haer.39.1.l3u15956627424k7 · Cited by 2,907
Test anxiety and direction of attention
Wine, J. (1971) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/h0031332 · Cited by 1,055
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Metadata
- Authors
- Steele, C. M.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Steele, Claude M.
- Venue
- American Psychologist
- Published
- 1997-06
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 613-629
- ISSN
- 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
- 1935-990X
- OpenAlex
- W4233188495
- Cited by
- 6,770
- References
- 3
- Citations by year
- 2026: 203 · 2025: 228 · 2024: 236 · 2023: 215 · 2022: 229 · 2021: 309 · 2020: 377 · 2019: 349 · 2018: 349 · 2017: 324 · 2016: 337 · 2015: 361 · 2014: 341 · 2013: 338 · 2012: 316
- FWCI
- 206.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh051977-04)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH51977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Career Development and Diversity
- Keywords
- stereotypes, intellectual identity, academic performance, threats, stereotype threat, self-concept
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Adolescent, Black or African American, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Male, Psychological Theory, Social Identification, Stereotyping, Students, Women
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