Cited by 1,946Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionOptimism, Hope, and Well-beingAging and Gerontology Research

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Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being.

Diener, Ed, Lucas, Richard E., Scollon, Christie Napa·2006·American Psychologist

DOI 10.1037/0003-066x.61.4.305

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Abstract

According to the hedonic treadmill model, good and bad events temporarily affect happiness, but people quickly adapt back to hedonic neutrality. The theory, which has gained widespread acceptance in recent years, implies that individual and societal efforts to increase happiness are doomed to failure. The recent empirical work outlined here indicates that 5 important revisions to the treadmill model are needed. First, individuals' set points are not hedonically neutral. Second, people have different set points, which are partly dependent on their temperaments. Third, a single person may have multiple happiness set points: Different components of well-being such as pleasant emotions, unpleasant emotions, and life satisfaction can move in different directions. Fourth, and perhaps most important, well-being set points can change under some conditions. Finally, individuals differ in their adaptation to events, with some individuals changing their set point and others not changing in reaction to some external event. These revisions offer hope for psychologists and policy-makers who aim to decrease human misery and increase happiness.

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“SWB has a strong relation with personality, or in other words, personality is a sub-part SWB [5], as there is work ongoing in the ﬁeld of personality prediction, so measurement of personality gives some idea about the SWB of a person [6, 7].”
Disruptive pandemic effects on telecommuters: A longitudinal study of work–family balance and well‐being during COVID‐19
Hu, X., & Subramony, M. V. (2022) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/apps.12387 · Cited by 23
“Recent modifications of this theory (Diener et al., 2006; Lyubomirsky, 2011) point to individual differences in set points and highlight the role of individuals' own efforts in hastening adaptation to the circumstances and reducing the length of time needed to revert to a set point after negative stimuli.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
When is the grass greener on the other side? A longitudinal study of the joint effect of occupational mobility and personality on the honeymoon‐hangover experience during job change
Zhou, Y., Wu, C., Zou, M., & Williams, M. (2020) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2491 · Cited by 25
“Diener, Lucas, and Scollon (2006) have called for a revision of set point theory that incorporates individual differences in the rate and extent of adaptation to various life events.”
Background
Conceptual and Historical Perspectives
Cloninger, S. C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.004 · Cited by 8
The perception of homeownership utility: Short-term and long-term effects
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The Price of Abundance
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Private Life Events as Antecedents for Public Employees’ Engagement and Burnout
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“While some researchers argue in line with the hedonic treadmill theory (Brickman & Campbell, 1971; Diener et al., 2009) that the positive or negative effects of life events abate as a function of time—in the sense that individuals will gradually adapt to the new status quo after a private life…”
Background
Differences in Multi-Dimensional Well-Being Among Factory Workers: Evidence from Six Countries
Białowolski, P., Lee, M. T., Węziak‐Białowolska, D., Chen, Y., Cowden, R. G., McNeely, E., & VanderWeele, T. J. (2023) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-023-10181-0 · Cited by 22
“…rights, political stability, and other markers of material security are generally good predictors of increased well-being across nations; and that the happiness of individuals within and across countries varies over time (Diener et al., 2006 , p. 3; Helliwell et al., 2019 ; Jebb et al., 2020 ).”
Background
Being Nice Goes Long Way: Manifesting Compassion for Others Enacts in Experiencing Positive Emotions and Workplace Happiness for the Employees
Pradhan, R. K., Jandu, K., Hati, L., & Panda, M. (2022) · Business Perspectives and Research · doi:10.1177/22785337221113157 · Cited by 19
“A broadly accepted view on happiness considers it as a synonym for subjective well-being; thus, it is a multifaceted construct comprising of a preponderance of positive emotional experiences than negative ones and a cognitive judgment of global life satisfaction (Diener et al., 2006).”
Background
The hedonic treadmill: Electricity access in India has increased, but so have expectations
Aklin, M., Chindarkar, N., Urpelainen, J., Jain, A., & Ganesan, K. (2021) · doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2021.112391 · Cited by 16
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Well-Being Science for Teaching and the General Public
Tov, W., Wirtz, D., Kushlev, K., Biswas‐Diener, R., & Diener, E. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916211046946 · Cited by 24
“People usually react more strongly when events first occur, but over time, their well-being returns toward previous levels (Diener et al., 2006; Frederick & Loewenstein, 1999; Lucas, 2007; Luhmann et al., 2012; Sheldon & Lucas, 2014).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Direct and Indirect Associations Between Interpersonal Resources and Posttraumatic Growth Through Resilience Among Women Living with HIV in China
Yang, X., Wang, Q., Wang, X., Mo, P. K. H., Wang, Z. J., Lau, J. T. F., & Wang, L. (2019) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-019-02694-3 · Cited by 18
A variational model for context-driven effects in perception and cognition
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Happiness and Identities
Stets, J. E., & Trettevik, R. (2016) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2016.04.011 · Cited by 37
Well-Being During Recession in the UK
Bayliss, D., Olsen, W. K., & Walthéry, P. (2016) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-016-9465-8 · Cited by 25
“Adaptation, in which our subjective assessments of our lives adapt according to external changes in conditions, is well noted (Nussbaum 2001; Diener et al. 2006).”
Background
Efecto de la Inteligencia Emocional y Flujo en el Trabajo Sobre Estresores y Bienestar Psicológico: Análisis de Ruta en Docentes
de Lange, A. M. D., García-Álvarez, D., & López, M. E. D. (2014) · Revista Colombiana de Psicología · doi:10.15446/rcp.v23n1.37676 · Cited by 16
In good times and in bad: A longitudinal analysis of the impact of bereavement on self-esteem and life satisfaction in couples
Reitz, A. K., Weidmann, R., Wünsche, J., Bühler, J. L., Burriss, R. P., & Grob, A. (2022) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070211054896 · Cited by 16
“Regardless of the high prevalence, most individuals experience bereavement as a painful and devastating event that disrupts everyday life and can shape developmental trajectories (Diener et al., 2006; Luhmann et al., 2012).”
Background
Head Teacher’s Social Support, Personality Variables and Subjective Well-Being of Slovak Primary Teachers
Janovská, A., Orosová, O., & Janovský, J. (2017) · ORBIS SCHOLAE · doi:10.14712/23363177.2017.11 · Cited by 15
The influence of stress on mental health among Chinese college students: The moderating role of psychological suzhi
Wang, H., Jia, R., Zhang, M., & Fan, W.-Y. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e26699 · Cited by 15
“According to the Adaptation Theory of Happiness, Diener et al. state that there are individual differences in adaptation, and that higher levels of happiness are produced when the body ’ s internal emotional system is able to adapt well to external stimulus events [54].”
Method
The Quiet Ego and Human Flourishing
Bauer, J. J., & Weatherbie, K. J. (2023) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-023-00689-5 · Cited by 19
“…well-being, an assessment of satisfaction without regard to specific contexts of meaning (e.g., satisfaction with life and subjective well-being; Diener et al., 2006; Haybron, 2008) c The fulfillment of meaningfulness—i.e., having or experiencing meaningfulness—refers to eudaimonic well-being,…”
Influential
Linking University Students’ Mindfulness to Positive Adjustment Amidst COVID-19 Pandemic: a 6-month Cross-Lagged Panel Design
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“However, individuals tend to adapt to the situations and restore their well-being to the pre-event levels (i.e. adaption effect; Diener et al., 2009; Hu & Subramony, 2022).”
Background
Work-related internal migration and changes in mental and physical health: A longitudinal study using German data
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Feeling too old? Consequences for subjective well-being. Longitudinal findings from the German Ageing Survey
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Can positivity be counterproductive when suffering domestic abuse?: A narrative review
Sinclair, E., Hart, R., & Lomas, T. (2020) · International Journal of Wellbeing · doi:10.5502/ijw.v10i1.754 · Cited by 26
From Unemployment to Employment and Back: Professional Trajectories and Well-Being
Gander, F., Hofmann, J., & Ruch, W. (2019) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-019-09797-y · Cited by 19
Network approaches to representing and understanding personality dynamicsPreprint
Beck, E. D., & Jackson, J. (2019) · Measuring and Modeling Persons and Situations · doi:10.31234/osf.io/8qws9 · Cited by 15
Older adults’ empathy and daily support exchanges
Huo, M. L., Fuentecilla, J. L., Birditt, K. S., & Fingerman, K. L. (2019) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407519837372 · Cited by 20
The Mediating Role of Subjective-Wellbeing in Terms of Perceived Stress and Hypertension
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Life Satisfaction in Adult Survivors of Childhood Brain Tumors
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Wellbeing and Problematic Smartphone Use: Serial Mediation of Mindfulness and Self-Compassion
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“Given the stable (Diener et al., 2009) and dispositional nature of wellbeing, its negative correlation with PSU might arise from an underlying tendency to experience negative affect, lack of control, maladaptive coping, anxiety, and compulsive behaviour (Horwood & Anglim, 2019 ).”
Background
Worker Stress, Burnout, and Wellbeing Before and During the COVID-19 Restrictions in the United Kingdom
Pelly, D., Daly, M., Delaney, L. D., & Doyle, O. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.823080 · Cited by 30
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“This suggests that people who prefer WFH have not and do not intend to change jobs more often than those who prefer WFH less.”
BackgroundResult
Adaptability and Workplace Subjective Well-Being: The Effects of Meaning and Purpose on Young Workers in The Workpalce
Nejad, H., Nejad, F. G., & Farahani, T. (2021) · Canadian journal of career development · doi:10.53379/cjcd.2021.70 · Cited by 14
In Memory of Edward Diener: Reflections on His Career, Contributions and the Science of Happiness
Ng, W.-T., Tov, W., Veenhoven, R., Rothmann, S., Chambel, M., Chen, S.-F., Cole, M., Consiglio, C., Costantini, A., Datu, J. A., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.706447 · Cited by 14
“challenged this notion by showing that certain life events can have lasting effects on well-being (Diener et al., 2006).”
Background
Flattening the Latent Growth Curve? Explaining Within-Person Changes in Employee Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Michel, J. S., Rotch, M. A., Carson, J. E., Bowling, N. A., & Shifrin, N. V. (2021) · Occupational Health Science · doi:10.1007/s41542-021-00087-4 · Cited by 19
“The less popular (yet often supported) adaptation models (e.g., Bowling et al., 2005; Diener et al., 2006) suggest that people adapt to stressors over time; thus, the strains produced by an ongoing stressor dissipate over time.”
Background
Migration as a test of the happiness set‐point hypothesis: Evidence from immigration to Canada and the United Kingdom
Helliwell, J. F., Shiplett, H., & Bonikowska, A. (2020) · Canadian Journal of Economics/Revue canadienne d économique · doi:10.1111/caje.12474 · Cited by 24
Post-materialism’s Social Class Divide: Experiences and Life Satisfaction
Booth, D. E. (2020) · Journal of Human Values · doi:10.1177/0971685820946180 · Cited by 17
“…energy into some activity so engaging as to cause one to lose all sense of self-consciousness; or accomplishing some purpose that expresses one’s deepest commitment to highly regarded personal values (Diener & Biswas-Diener, 2009; Diener et al., 2009; Diener & Seligman, 2009; Garhammer, 2002).”
Background
Patients' perceptions and ICU clinicians predictions of quality of life following critical illness
Detsky, M. E., Kohn, R. A., Delman, A. M., Buehler, A. E., Kent, S. A., Ciuffetelli, I. V., Mikkelsen, M. E., Turnbull, A. E., & Harhay, M. O. (2018) · Journal of Critical Care · doi:10.1016/j.jcrc.2018.09.034 · Cited by 18
“For example, these measures of QOL may fail to detect important aspects of health beyond physical and mental health, including social health, gratitude, or motivation to change [12], and may omit patients' baseline level of happiness and how they adapt to change [13].”
Valuation as a Mechanism of Self-ControlPreprint
Berkman, E. T., Livingson, J. L., Kahn, L. E., & Inzlicht, M. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2665823 · Cited by 19
Does a taller husband make his wife happier
Sohn, K. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.039 · Cited by 14
Measuring happiness in individuals with profound multiple disabilities.
Darling, J., & Circo, D. (2015) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2015.09.005 · Cited by 14

Authors: Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Scollon, C. N.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
Michigan State University (US)
Singapore Management University (SG)
ORCID: Diener, Ed
Lucas, Richard E.
Scollon, Christie Napa
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2006-05
Volume: 61
Issue: 4
Pages: 305-314
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/0003-066x.61.4.305
OpenAlex: W2052283723
Cited by: 1,946
References: 71
Citations by year: 2026: 82 · 2025: 98 · 2024: 99 · 2023: 129 · 2022: 123 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 155 · 2019: 85 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 96 · 2016: 89 · 2015: 126 · 2014: 107 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 124
FWCI: 75.31
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Singapore Management University Institutional Knowledge (InK) (Singapore Management University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Keywords: hedonic treadmill, adaptation theory, well-being, life satisfaction, emotions, temperament, individual differences, happiness policy, subjective well-being
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Happiness, Humans, Psychological Theory, Quality of Life

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Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being.

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