Cited by 1,946Psychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionOptimism, Hope, and Well-beingAging and Gerontology Research

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Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being.

Diener, Ed, Lucas, Richard E., Scollon, Christie Napa·2006·American Psychologist

DOI 10.1037/0003-066x.61.4.305

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Abstract

According to the hedonic treadmill model, good and bad events temporarily affect happiness, but people quickly adapt back to hedonic neutrality. The theory, which has gained widespread acceptance in recent years, implies that individual and societal efforts to increase happiness are doomed to failure. The recent empirical work outlined here indicates that 5 important revisions to the treadmill model are needed. First, individuals' set points are not hedonically neutral. Second, people have different set points, which are partly dependent on their temperaments. Third, a single person may have multiple happiness set points: Different components of well-being such as pleasant emotions, unpleasant emotions, and life satisfaction can move in different directions. Fourth, and perhaps most important, well-being set points can change under some conditions. Finally, individuals differ in their adaptation to events, with some individuals changing their set point and others not changing in reaction to some external event. These revisions offer hope for psychologists and policy-makers who aim to decrease human misery and increase happiness.

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Relationship Between Jealousy and Subjective Happiness Among University Students: Moderating Role of Self-Esteem
Fazaldad, G., Iqbal, S., & Hassan, B. (2020) · Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research · doi:10.33824/pjpr.2020.35.2.21 · Cited by 1
Modeling Violence Among and Against University Students in a Mexican Medium-Sized City
Gijón-Cruz, A. S., Reyes-Morales, R. G., García-Ramírez, B. A., Bautista-Martínez, J. L., & Esteva-Duran, N. (2020) · Chinese Business Review · doi:10.17265/1537-1506/2020.06.003 · Cited by 1
Genes-in-Dyads: A Study of Relationship Quality
Das, A. (2020) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027520920024 · Cited by 1
“Such “trait well-being” has specifically been linked to lower morbidity and increased longevity (Diener et al., 2006).”
BackgroundInfluential
Wellbeing and health psychology: the difficulty to measure quality of life
Femenia, S., & Lozano, J. F. (2019) · Quaderns de Psicologia · doi:10.5565/rev/qpsicologia.1585 · Cited by 6
Wechselseitige Einflüsse von Beziehungsqualität, Lebenszufriedenheit und Partnerschaftsstabilität bei Müttern mit minderjährigen Kindern – eine Zehn-Jahres-Untersuchung
Hannighofer, J., Hahlweg, K., & Zimmermann, T. (2019) · PPmP - Psychotherapie · Psychosomatik · Medizinische Psychologie · doi:10.1055/a-0975-8991 · Cited by 1
Does waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) predict happiness? Belief about a person's essence matters
Shin, J.-E., & Suh, E. M. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.04.037 · Cited by 1
Macroeconomic priorities revisited: the behavioural foundations of stabilization policies
D'Orlando, F., & Ferrante, F. (2018) · Cambridge Journal of Economics · doi:10.1093/cje/bex076 · Cited by 1
An exploration into women’s choice and premarital experiences of arranged marriages within a South Asian community in Britain. An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis.
Patel, D. (2017) · doi:10.15123/pub.7388 · Cited by 1
How Does Life Satisfaction Change During the Transition from School to Work? A Study of Ninth and Tenth-Grade School-Leavers in Germany
Siembab, M., & Stawarz, N. (2017) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-017-9945-z · Cited by 20
“One explanation for this can be drawn from Diener et al. (2006): people with high self-esteem experience positive events more often and thus might not benefit from one more positive event to the same extent as people with low self-esteem.”
BackgroundInfluential
Heterogeneity of change in state affect following insulin therapy initiation in type 2 diabetic patients
Gruszczyńska, E., Kwissa‐Gajewska, Z., & Kroemeke, A. (2017) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1515/ppb-2017-0039 · Cited by 1
What does “better” mean? Perceptions of electricity and water services in Santo Domingo
Jiménez, R., Serebrisky, T., & Mercado, J. (2016) · doi:10.1016/j.jup.2016.01.005 · Cited by 1
Different forms of life satisfaction and their relation to affectivity
Harzer, C., & Ehrlich, C. (2016) · doi:10.5348/p13-2016-8-sr-2 · Cited by 1
“Assuming that the ability to perceive one’s life in a more favorable way is limited and the notion that important life changes can lead to permanent drops in happiness [20], it seems important to monitor the proportion as well as the level of resignation within a certain population.”
Background
Happywork : modélisation multi-agents de la satisfaction au travail
Chapuis, K. (2016) · theses.fr (ABES) · doi:10.70675/21b0d207z44dez413cz85eazdc2290e8499a · Cited by 1
“L’explication la plus communément admise est issue des recherches sur le bonheur hors contexte et a été notamment identifiée sous le terme ”headonic trademill” (Staw and Cohen-Charash, 2005 ; Diener et al., 2006).”
Background
Subjective Well-being And Personality:Implications For Wellness Tourism
Malkina-Pykh, I., & Pykh, Y. (2014) · WIT transactions on ecology and the environment · doi:10.2495/st140051 · Cited by 1
“Recent research suggests showed that set point theory overstates the stability of happiness and it can, to some degree, be changed [11].”
Background
The Quiet Ego Scale: Measuring the Compassionate Self-Identity
Wayment, H. A., Bauer, J. J., & Sylaska, K. M. (2014) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-014-9546-z · Cited by 152
“As it turns out, concerns for eudemonic growth (e.g., in one’s major life goals) predict the subsequent attainment of eudemonic growth, as reflected in increases over time in measures of ego development (Loevinger 1976) and well-being (Diener et al. 2006; Ryff and Singer 1998).”
Background
Domain Satisfaction as a Mediator of the Relationship Between Work–Family Spillover and Subjective Well-Being: A Longitudinal Study
Cho, E., & Tay, L. (2015) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-015-9423-8 · Cited by 73
“The objective of this study was to examine whether and how work–family spillover relates to future SWB, specifically life satisfaction; among various indices of SWB (e.g., psychological and physical strain, positive and negative effect, etc.; Diener 1984; Diener et al. 2006), we focus on life satisfaction because it i…”
Background
Relations among Personality Characteristics, Environmental Events, Coping Behavior and Adolescents’ Life Satisfaction
Lyons, M. D., Huebner, E. S., & Hills, K. J. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9630-z · Cited by 64
Studying Immigrant Integration Through Self-Reported Life Satisfaction in the Country of Residence
Paparusso, A. (2018) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-018-9624-1 · Cited by 45
A Worldwide Measure of Societal Quality of Life
Maridal, J. H. (2016) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-016-1418-y · Cited by 39
Subjective Well-Being in China: Associations with Absolute, Relative, and Perceived Economic Circumstances
Otis, N. P. (2016) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-016-1312-7 · Cited by 34
Happiness Enrichment and Sustainable Happiness
Eckhaus, E., & Sheaffer, Z. (2018) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-018-9641-0 · Cited by 37
Efficacy of an adaptation of the Best Possible Self intervention implemented through positive technology: a randomized control trial
Enrique, Á., Bretón-López, J., Molinari, G., Baños, R., & Botella, C. (2017) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-017-9552-5
The Effects of Short-Term Personal Goals on Subjective Well-Being
Steca, P., Monzani, D., Greco, A., D’Αddario, M., Cappelletti, E. R., & Pancani, L. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9651-7 · Cited by 49
Improving Personal Happiness Through Couple Intervention: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Self-directed Couple Enhancement Program
Hilpert, P., Bodenmann, G., Nußbeck, F. W., & Bradbury, T. N. (2014) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-014-9591-7 · Cited by 29
“In addition, Diener et al. (2006) found that individuals are able to change their set point under certain conditions.”
Background
Happy Tourists, Unhappy Locals
Okulicz-Kozaryn, A., & Strzelecka, M. (2016) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-016-1436-9
“The livability theory explaines observed differences in happiness in terms of need-environment fit and it appears to be more applicable to tourism than some happiness theories based on comparison and adjustment (Brickman et al. 1978, Diener et al. 2006, Michalos 1985).”
Background
Is Cohabitation As Good As Marriage for People’s Subjective Well-Being? Longitudinal Evidence on Happiness and Life Satisfaction in the British Household Panel Survey
Blekesaune, M. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9834-x
Determinants of Subjective Wellbeing Trajectories in Older Adults: A Growth Mixture Modeling Approach
Moreno‐Agostino, D., de la Torre‐Luque, A., de la Fuente, J., Lara, E., Martín‐María, N., Moneta, M. V., Bayes‐Marin, I., Olaya, B., Haro, J. M., Miret, M., et al. (2020) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-020-00248-2 · Cited by 23
On the Role of Mental Health Activities for Teachers’ Work and Life
Hofmann, H., Groß, D., & Kohlmann, C. (2020) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-020-09885-4 · Cited by 27
Do Rich Parents Enjoy Children Less?
Moglie, M. L., Mencarini, L., & Rapallini, C. (2018) · Journal of Population Economics · doi:10.1007/s00148-018-0689-9 · Cited by 16
Set-Point Theory and Societal Collapse: The Case of Russia
Foa, R., Inglehart, R., Понарин, Э. Д., & Karabchuk, T. (2017) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-017-9888-4 · Cited by 27
“Such studies tend to a different conclusion from what set-point theory would predict: namely, that individuals are not necessarily trapped on a hedonic treadmill (Diener et al. 2006).”
Background
The scars of scarcity in the short run: an empirical investigation across Europe
Baldini, M., Gallo, G., & Torricelli, C. (2020) · Economia Politica · doi:10.1007/s40888-020-00187-4 · Cited by 12
Consume More, Work Longer, and Be Unhappy: Possible Social Roots of Economic Crisis?
Sarracino, F., & Mikucka, M. (2018) · Applied Research in Quality of Life · doi:10.1007/s11482-017-9581-0
Extending Traditional Psychological Disciplines to Positive Psychology: A View from Subjective Well-being
Ng, S. H. (2016) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-016-9782-5 · Cited by 12
Marginal Utility and Economic Development: Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Aspirations and Subjective Well-Being Among Chinese Employees
Monnot, M. J. (2015) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-015-1153-9 · Cited by 13
“This effect has been metaphorically referred to as the ‘‘hedonic treadmill’’ (Brickman and Campbell 1971; see Diener et al. 2006 for review).”
Background
Trajectories of Affective Balance 1 Year After Traumatic Injury: Associations with Resilience, Social Support, and Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
Laird, V., Elliott, T. R., Brossart, D. F., Luo, W., Hicks, J. A., Warren, A., & Foreman, M. (2018) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-018-0004-1
Do the happy-go-lucky?
Thompson, E., Prendergast, G., & Dericks, G. (2019) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-019-00554-w
Caught in the Monkey Trap: Elaborating the Hypothesis for Why Income Aspiration Decreases Life Satisfaction
Keller, T. (2018) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-018-9969-z
Trajectories of Happiness 5 Years Following Medical Discharge for Traumatic Disability: Differences Between Insider and Outsider Perspectives
McCord, C. E., Elliott, T. R., Berry, J. W., Underhill, A., Fine, P., & Lai, M. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-014-9610-8
Ignoring Easterlin: Why Easterlin’s Correlation Findings Need Not Matter to Public Policy
Hersch, G. (2017) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-017-9920-8 · Cited by 3
Assumptions and Conclusions: Fundamental Distinctions Between Tibetan Buddhist and Western Approaches to Happiness
Cutz, G. S., Rathus, J. H., Vidair, H. B., & DeRosa, R. R. (2015) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-015-0216-9 · Cited by 3
Benatar on the Badness of All Human Lives
Landau, I. (2020) · Philosophia · doi:10.1007/s11406-020-00207-4

Authors: Diener, E., Lucas, R. E., & Scollon, C. N.
Affiliations: University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign (US)
Michigan State University (US)
Singapore Management University (SG)
ORCID: Diener, Ed
Lucas, Richard E.
Scollon, Christie Napa
Venue: American Psychologist
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2006-05
Volume: 61
Issue: 4
Pages: 305-314
ISSN: 0003-066X (ISSN-L)
1935-990X
DOI: 10.1037/0003-066x.61.4.305
OpenAlex: W2052283723
Cited by: 1,946
References: 71
Citations by year: 2026: 82 · 2025: 98 · 2024: 99 · 2023: 129 · 2022: 123 · 2021: 99 · 2020: 155 · 2019: 85 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 96 · 2016: 89 · 2015: 126 · 2014: 107 · 2013: 102 · 2012: 124
FWCI: 75.31
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: American Psychologist (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Singapore Management University Institutional Knowledge (InK) (Singapore Management University) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Optimism, Hope, and Well-being
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
Keywords: hedonic treadmill, adaptation theory, well-being, life satisfaction, emotions, temperament, individual differences, happiness policy, subjective well-being
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Happiness, Humans, Psychological Theory, Quality of Life

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Beyond the hedonic treadmill: Revising the adaptation theory of well-being.

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