Longitudinal models of developmental dynamics between reading and cognition from childhood to adolescence.

“Although the extent to which the effect of early stress on brain development and stress physiology may affect the development of intelligence is not currently known, we do know that (a) stress is greater in low-income home environments (Evans, 2004) and (b) a low level of stress is important for self-regulation and ea…”

“…since 1983 when they were age 5 years, and who have had their reading performance assessed yearly throughout their primary and secondary schooling (Ferrer et al., 2007; Shaywitz et al., 1999; Shaywitz, Escobar, Shaywitz, Fletcher, & Makuch, 1992; Shaywitz, Fletcher, Holahan, & Shaywitz, 1992;…”

“Other studies have examined the relation between IQ (indicated as performance IQ and full-scale IQ from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale) and reading (based on a Woodcock– Johnson reading composite) from first through 12th grades based on latent change score models (Ferrer et al., 2007; Ferrer, Shaywitz, Holahan, March…”

“In our epidemiological Connecticut Longitudinal Study sample in which each participant was individually assessed, we found that 17.5% of students were reading below age or ability levels (Shaywitz et al. 1994).”

“Their results conflicted with those of Ferrer et al. (2007, 2010) in that only unidirectional coupling from vocabulary to reading comprehension was found. There was no corresponding influence of reading comprehension on subsequent vocabulary growth. Reynolds and Turek (2012) speculated on two possible causes of the di…”

“Although IQ scores (29) were higher in the NI group, all DYS participants had normal-range IQ scores; it is difficult to balance groups along this dimension, because reading ability and cognition are strongly linked (30).”

“(Cattell, 1971, 1987; Stanovich, 1986, 1991) and empirically (Ferrer & McArdle, 2004; Ferrer et al., 2007).”

“PS is thought to contribute to FR only weakly, and indirectly, through its influence on WM (Kail, 2007; Kail & Ferrer, 2007).”

“Extensive details are available elsewhere concerning the LDS modeling procedure’s mathematical and statistical properties (McArdle, 2001; McArdle & Hamagami, 2001), its applications to developmental data (Ferrer & McArdle, 2004; Ferrer et al., 2007), and comparisons between LDS models and other models of change (Ferre…”

“Furthermore, among children and adolescents, FR has been identified to be a leading indicator of changes over time in crystallized abilities (McArdle, 2001) and changes in quantitative ability, academic knowledge, and reading (Ferrer and McArdle, 2004; Ferrer et al., 2007).”

“We chose this method because IQ is a domain-general construct that accounts for a large amount of variance in human performance in general, and has not been reliably or discriminatively associated with reading ability (e.g., Ferrer et al., 2007; Shaywitz et al., 1995; Stanovich, 1991).”

“This extension was proposed by McArdle (2001; McArdle & Hamagami, 2001) and has been used by Ferrer and McArdle in several investigations (2003, 2004; Ferrer et al., 2006).”

“The strongest infl uences of fl uid reasoning ability on later achievement have been observed among children of ages 5 to 10 (Ferrer and McArdle, 2004; Ferrer et al., 2007), although substantial but weaker effects are apparent until age 24.”

“By following a longitudinal design and using a LCS approach to analyze the data, we are able to capture true changes over time (Ferrer et al., 2007).”

“Following previous methods used by other researchers (Ferrer & McArdle, 2010; Ferrer et al., 2007; McArdle & Prindle, 2008), we developed four latent change score models using R statistical software (Lavaan and Psych) packages.”

“Other behavioral longitudinal studies have reported change in early childhood and adolescence in a variety of cognitive domains (Thomas et al., 1999; Ferrer et al., 2007; Kail and Ferrer, 2007; De Brauwer and Fias, 2009; Luna, 2009).”

“General linear models will be used to adjust for known age-related differences in measurement error and variance in IQ (26, 32).”

“…King et al., 2006; McArdle, 2001; McArdle & Grimm, 2010; McArdle & Hamagami, 2001) and empirical applications (e.g., Curby, Grimm, & Pianta, 2010; Ferrer et al., 2007; Finkel et al., 2009; King et al., 2009; Ghisletta & Lindenberger, 2003) almost always include such specifications without…”

“McArdle, J. J., Hamagami, F., Jones, K., Jolesz, F., Kikinis, R., Spiro, A., III, & Albert, M. S. (2004).”

“However, we realize that this is a more “purist” approach that some researchers adhere to (e.g., Hounkpatin, Boyce, Dunn, & Wood, 2018) and others do not (e.g., Ferrer et al., 2007).”

“In another study, Ferrer et al. (2007) found positive, mutually beneficial relations between Verbal IQ (i.e., Gc) and reading comprehension.”

“…to solve such matrices, often considered a measure of fluid reasoning, has been shown to be a good predictor of school achievement in both the reading (Ferrer et al., 2007; Stanovich, Cunningham, & Feeman, 1984) and math domain (Primi, Ferrão, & Almeida, 2010; Taub, Keith, Floyd, & McGrew, 2008).”

“These models have been used to examine reciprocal effects in development (e.g., cognitive and behavioral changes; Ferrer & McArdle, 2004; Ferrer et al., 2007; King, King, McArdle, Shalev, & Doron-LaMarca, 2009).”

“Developmental Influences between Vocabulary Knowledge and Reading Comprehension The results of the LCS models supported bidirectional influences between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension over time, consistent with Ferrer et al. (2007).”

“Ferrer and colleagues also documented that reading abilities in children grade 1–12 were associated with cognition, but in this study, the association was strongest during 1st through 3rd grade (Ferrer et al., 2007).”

“A strong possibility is that small initial differences in one aspect of intelligence support increases in other aspects [21,22].”

“These models of inter individual differences in intra individual change have been applied to research on the relations between general verbal knowledge (e.g., Ferrer, Shaywitz, Holahan, Marchione, & Shaywitz, 2010; Ferrer et al., 2007; Reynolds & Turek, 2012) or more specific vocabulary knowledge (e.”

“…strongly with reading development and impairment (Stanovich, 1986; Shaywitz et al., 1995; Berninger et al., 2001; Ferrer and McArdle, 2004; Ferrer et al., 2007, 2010), although the exact nature of this relationship still remains unclear (Newman et al., 1991; Rispens et al., 1991; Jiménez…”

“, 2019) and substantive (Ferrer et al., 2007; McArdle & Prindle, 2008; Selig & Preacher, 2009) work using these models (see the Canonical”

“Ferrer et al. (2007) included these effects in their study of the developmental sequences between cognitive abilities and reading.”

“McArdle JJ, Hamagami F, Jones K, Jolesz F, Kikinis R, Spiro A III, et al. Structural modeling of dynamic changes in memory and brain structure using longitudinal data from the Normative Aging Study.”

“Additional phases would increase the power and gain statistical precision and facilitate the investigation on discontinuities in dynamics (Ferrer et al., 2007).”

“…nonword repetition ability was stronger than vice versa, we compared the model in Figure 3 with three alternative models in which one or both cross-effects (from vocabulary to nonword repetition and vice versa) were removed (see Ferrer et al., 2007, Ferrer & McArdle, 2004 for similar procedures).”

“, 2014), such as attention (Conners, 2009), IQ (Ferrer et al., 2007), inhibitory control (Cartwright, 2012) and working memory (Preßler et al.”

“Notably, it has been demonstrated that the influence of cognition on reading in children is more apparent for reading comprehension and word recognition than for decoding ( Ferrer et al., 2007 ), suggesting that domain general networks might contribute differently to different subskills.”

“Previous research has validated the use of these scales with adolescent populations (e.g., Ferrer et al., 2007).”

“This result is consistent with a previous longitudinal study of general cognitive abilities and reading in typical children (Ferrer et al., 2007).”

“…followed longitudinally from school entry into early adulthood with the purpose of studying the development of reading, learning, and attention (Ferrer et al., 2007; Ferrer, Shaywitz, Holahan, Marchione, & Shaywitz, 2010; Ferrer et al., 2015; B. Shaywitz et al., 1995; S. E. Shaywitz et al.,…”

“Independent of users’ creative or monetary ambitions, previous research has highlighted the importance of social connectedness among users: They are committed to supporting each other’s communication (Ferrer et al., 2007).”

“Findings from studies of community samples suggest that young children who score higher on tests of executive function and attention, visual-motor ability, nonverbal reasoning, phonological awareness, and language make more rapid academic progress and have higher levels of later achievement (Cameron et al., 2012; Ferr…”

“[6] applied linear dynamic models to a longitudinal dataset containing 445 children who were annually assessed from first through twelfth grades.”

“1 Data Data come from participants in the Connecticut Longitudinal Study (Shaywitz et al. 1990; Shaywitz et al. 1992; Shaywitz et al. 1999; Ferrer et al. 1999; Ferrer et al. 2007; Ferrer et al. 2015), a longitudinal panel of individuals focusing on dyslexia.”

“8 This highlights the period relating to early childhood as particularly important for the development of reasoning ability.”

“…on variable-centered approaches to predict achievement, often assessing the mediating and moderating roles of child and family related variables with longitudinal samples (Ferrer et al., 2007; McClelland et al., 2007; McClelland, Sektnan, & Morrison, 2009; Razza, Martin, & Brooks-Gunn, 2009).”

“…to represent trajectories that are typical of the development of cognitive abilities from childhood to early adulthood (e.g., Kail & Ferrer, 2007; Schmitt et al., 2017; van Der Maas et al., 2006), and were based on previous empirical studies (Ferrer et al., 2007, 2010; Shaywitz et al., 1990).”

“For a general description of LCS models, their technical underpinnings, and potential uses, we refer to available literature (Ferrer et al., 2007; Ferrer & McArdle, 2004, 2010; McArdle, 2001, 2009; McArdle & Hamagami, 2001).”

“…a relatively new statistical model, it has been used successfully in various fields, including clinical psychology (Sbarra & Allen, 2009), gerontology (Pinquart & Schindler, 2007), learning and intelligence research (Ferrer et al., 2007; McArdle et al., 2000), and neuroscience (Raz et al., 2005).”

“The ability to solve such analogy problems, a measure of fluid reasoning, has been shown to be a good predictor of academic achievement in both reading (Ferrer et al., 2007; Stanovich, Cunningham, & Feeman, 1984) and maths (Primi, Ferrão, & Almeida, 2010; Taub, Floyd, Keith, & McGrew, 2008).”

“…however, future studies can integrate these two approaches by building tools to precisely measure gyral gaps in an automated fashion, which would result in both a large N, as well as precisely identified gyral gaps, in each individual using deep learning (Lyu et al., 2021; Rivière et al., 2022).”

“These parameters are reported in Table 1 and were based on previous empirical studies (Ferrer et al., 2007, 2010; Shaywitz et al., 1990).”

“On the basis of prior studies using BLCSMs (Ferrer et al., 2007; Kievit et al., 2018; McArdle & Grimm, 2010), the selffeedback parameters (β) for each construct were fixed to be equal across assessment waves.”

“Other studies suggest reading skills contribute to the growth of general cognitive skills and vice versa (Ferrer et al., 2007; Ritchie et al., 2015).”

“…more information on LCS models and their application to developmental change, see McArdle (2001); McArdle and Hamagami (2001), E. Ferrer and McArdle (2004), E. Ferrer et al. (2007), E. Ferrer, Shaywitz, Holahan, Marchione, and Shaywitz (2010), E. Ferrer and McArdle (2010), and Kievit et al. (2017).”

“Executive abilities are particularly influenced by schooling, as both direct academic training (e.g., mathematics) (Ferrer et al., 2007) and exposure to rich social environments (e.g., peer-to-peer or student-to-teacher interactions (Holmes et al., 2016; Koşkulu-Sancar et al., 2023) aid in the…”