When is an illustration worth ten thousand words?

“…machine and see a visual depiction have better comprehension if the text is placed close to the part of the picture to which it refers (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990) or it is better if a commentary about a particular event in the operation of a machine is presented simultaneously with an…”

“Similar to other studies, the unique impact of diagrams on knowledge acquisition was shown to be dependent upon the nature of the task (e.g., Fiore, Cuevas & Oser, in press; Hegarty, Carpenter & Just, 1996; Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Anderson, 1991; Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ).”

“Multimedia benefits accrue across a variety of instructional materials, including conceptual tasks (e.g., Hannus & Hyona, 1999), causal tasks (e.g., Mayer & Gallini, 1990), and procedural tasks (Brunye, Taylor, Rapp, & Spiro, 2006).”

“Those studies were based on the work of Mayer [17,18], whose interest lay primarily in understanding if and how different kinds of diagrammatic models (e.”

“Similarly, Mayer and Gallini (1990) identified a contiguity principle—presenting different information modalities close in time and space can enhance learning outcomes, as simultaneous presentation of visual (e.g., animation) and verbal (e.g., audio) information reduces the time required to hold…”

“To help students build a mental model of a system, Mayer and Gallini (1990) performed a series of experiments using expository passages with college students to explain how scientific devices (e.”

“These findings are congruent with other research that suggests that, even if adults can infer the movement of components of a mechanical system from pictures, they do not carry out these inferential processes unless they are led to make them by the text and/or other elements in these pictures such as arrows [55], [56].”

“…phenomena (for example how a pump works, or the phenomenon of thunder, Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer, 2001) has been attested in numerous research (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Mayer, 1999; Ganier, Gombert, & Fayol, 2000; Hidrio & Jamet, 2002a; Hegarty & Just, 1993; Gyselinck &…”

“Educational psychology research performed by Mayer and coworkers Mayer & Gallini 1990; Mayer & Anderson 1991, ) suggests that instruction using computer animations is most effective when the words and pictures presented simultaneously, rather than separated one another in time or space.”

“…dynamic visualizations rapidly present complex information about abstract scientific concepts, they may confuse students or distract students from focusing on relevant information (Lewalter, 2003; Lowe, 2003; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Pass, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003; Rieber, 1989).”

“The visual representations investigated in these studies ranged from diagrams that accompanied text describing systems (eg, Hall, Bailey, & Tillman, 1997 ; Mayer, 1989 ; Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ) to actual physical models of scientific systems (eg, Penner, Giles, Lehrer, & Schauble, 1996 ).”

“A growing body of research supports the notion that today’s students prefer teaching modalities that favor visual learning (Burmark 2002; Mayer and Gallini 1990; Peeck 1993; Powell and KusumaPowell 2011; Prensky 2001).”

“The use of these multiple visual representations in engineering instruction is broadly supported by studies on the multimedia learning effect (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Anderson, 1991; Mayer & Gallini, 1990) and theoretical frameworks for multimedia learning (Ainsworth, 1999; Mayer, 2005).”

“Studies comparing comics and other visual formats [27] with text-only material [1] and illustrated texts [31] confirm these trends, and show increased memorability.”

“Thescience education and educational psychology literature includes detailed discussions of visualization approaches for understanding physical scientific phenomena (Gilbert, 2005; Larkin & Simon, 1987; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“…drawings of brakes in different states Lightning Mayer et al. (1996) Depictive with high repleteness: step-bystep drawings and animations Generators Mayer and Gallini (1990) Depictive with high repleteness: step-bystep drawings of generators in different states Lungs Mayer and Sims (1994)…”

“Labeled schematics have previously been shown to improve students' learning performance on certain kinds of technical texts ( Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ).”

“For example, although illustrations can improve text comprehension by making relationships among concepts more explicit, they are unlikely to do so for experts who readily infer these relationships from their knowledge (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Similarly, research on diagrammatic reasoning has shown that diagrams are often most effective when accompanied by a text that explains how the diagrams should be interpreted (Hegarty & Just, 1993; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“…Educational Psychology Review, 8 (1996), pp. 357-371 View Record in Scopus Google Scholar 27 von 31 02.12.19, 09:20 Mayer, 2009 Mayer et al., 1996 Mayer and Gallini, 1990 Paivio, 1986 Pintrich, 2000 Pressley and Harris, 2006 Renkl and Atkinson, 2007 Samuelstuen and Bråten, 2007 R.E. Mayer…”

“Seven articles (Coleman et al., 2018; Dwyer et al, 2010; Ehlers-Zavala, 1999; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; McCrudden et al., 2007; McCrudden et al., 2009; Reid & Beveridge, 1986) included more than one study meeting our inclusion criteria.”

“Taking prior knowledge as an example, some researchers have found that students with low prior knowledge benefit more from computer-based visualization programs than high-knowledge students (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“The research carried out here will attempt to confirm, or refute, the findings of Mayer and Gallini (1990) and Mayer et al. (1995) who suggest that learners who lack prior knowledge tend to exhibit stronger multi-media and contiguity effects than learners who possess high levels of prior knowledge.”

“This study design builds on previous experiments where participant learning outcomes are measured after being exposed to different textbook formats (e.g., Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Considerable research supports the efficacy of graphic depictions in various applied settings (for reviews, see Levie & Lentz, 1982; Levin, Anglin, & Carney, 1987; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Winn, 1989).”

“This construction process can be considered to result in an internal representation that has been described as a mental model or situational model of the depicted subject matter (Glenberg & Langston, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“A case can be made that creativity enhances learning through the use of imagination (Leopold, Mayer, & Dutke, 2018; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Vygotsky, 2004), remote associations (Lee, Huggins, & Therriault, 2014), and originality (Dollinger, 2011).”

“Mayer and Gallini ( 1990 ) also found that novices who were provided with a complete conceptual model of a bicycle tire pump system prior to solving problems generated twice as many solutions to the problem than did the novices who were provided with an incomplete model of the pump system.”

“On the basis of this internal representation, students can derive structural knowledge about the major components of the system as well as dynamic knowledge about how the system works (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Although convergent research suggests that graphical comprehension affects students ’ reading comprehension (Hannus & Hyönä, 1999 ; Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ; Roberts et al., 2015 ), a research gap is that few studies consider students ’ learning from authentic texts.”

“As demonstrated by Mayer and associates (Mayer, 2009; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990), visuals can be very helpful to promote comprehension of scienti fi c texts and of technical manuals, where verbal explanations may not suf fi ce to help readers ‘ picture ’ the described concepts or…”

“Several explanations have been proposed for the e ! ect of pictorial information in text learning (Stein et al ., 1987; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Hegarty & Just, 1993).”

“…Glenberg & Langston, 1992; Marcus et al., 1996; Stone & Glock, 1981; Zacks & Tversky, 2003; but see Novick & Morse, 2000) and declarative information (e.g. Levie & Lentz, 1982; Mayer, 1989; Mayer, 1997; Mayer, 2001; Mayer, Steinhoff, et al., 1995; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Peeck, 1994; Sweller, 1999).”

“This foundation has been used to compare text-only presentations with graphics/text presentations in science learning [45], animation and narration for explanative material [40], multimedia explanations [46] and conceptual modeling in systems analysis [26, 27, 28].”

“…theory of dual coding (Clark & Paivio, 1991); (b) increased comprehension of acquired information and improved ability to perform transfer (e.g., Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Schnotz & Kulhavy, 1994) due to interactions among the constructed textual and visual mental…”

“More specifically, the investigation looked at the comprehension and memory processes of students learning a series of physics concepts (static electricity, gas pressure, tc.) through the computer assisted presentation of a text associated with illustrations.”

“…in an orderly way (Kallison, 1986), note transitions to new topics (Smith & Cotton, 1980), use clear and simple language (Land, 1987), use many vivid images and examples (Hiebert, Wearne, & Taber, 1991; Mayer & Gallini, 1990), and frequently restate essential principles (Maddox & Hoole, 1975).”

“For example, McTigue (2009) conducted a study on sixth- grade students and compared the results with previous research (Mayer & Gallini, 1990) that employed university students as participants.”

“According to a process implemented by Mayer and Gallini (1990), the idea units in the students' answers were counted and coded by two instructional designers with Masters' degrees in instructional design.”

“Morrison, 2001, adapted from Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ).”

“Previous studies on image-text scaffolding have shown that texts with images facilitate comprehension for learners with low prior knowledge (Mayer & Gallini, 1990) anyway, even without manipulating the verbal language and verbal-visual language relations.”

“Psychologists such as Mayer (1997) and Mayer and Gallini (1990) have examined the intricate relationship between visual representations and verbal text in instructional science materials.”

“However, many recent studies ( Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Hmelo et al., 2000; Pollock et al., 2002) demonstrated that the effectiveness of these techniques depends on the individual learner’s level expertise.”

“A series of prior studies reported the benefit of learning from multiple representations such as maps (e.g., Verdi & Kulhavy, 2002) and illustrations (Mayer & Gallini, 1994).”

“One salient research effort found that the presentation of animated images and narration concurrently, as opposed to separately or in succession, benefited students who had little background in the subject matter (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“os as an instructional tool has been shown to significantly improve recall of conceptual information and creative problem solving over other mediums, particular for lower prior-knowledge participants [25]. Additionally, the video medium allowed us to track the amount of information the participant received through vie…”

“Representations by pictures, diagrams, illustrations, or flowcharts can some-times be worth ten thousand sentential representations (Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003; Larkin & Simon, 1987; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Nassi & Shneiderman, 1973).”

“In addition to configuration properties , kinematic properties are necessary for readers to be able to form a good mechanical mental model (Boucheix & Lowe, 2010; Hegarty, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Computers are of great benefit to education because they can present multimedia information for learning which, according to previous studies (e.g., Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Anderson , 1992), makes learning more effective.”

“These considerations are in line with prior research on text-picture interactions, indicating that pictures are more helpful in more complex texts (Mayer and Gallini, 1990).”

“The findings on the facilitative role of multimedia in learning agree with previous research (e.g., Clark & Mayer, 2011, ch. 4; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990) in that interactivity and multimedia presentation enhance learning.”

“Another possibility is that using multiple representations of a problem (including visual ones) leads to a fuller understanding of the problem and an increased " depth of processing " (Logie & Baddeley, 1990; Mayer, 1989, 2001; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“When compared to text only [2] or illustrated text [26], comics have been shown to demonstrate increased memorability.”

“Mayer & Gallini (1990) asked novice students to study a document dealing with the functioning of several pump systems.”

“In recognition of the different affordances of text and graphics, in the 80’s and 90’s a great deal of research was conducted in which diagrams were provided as an adjunct learning source to text (cf., Hegarty & Just, 1989; 1993; Mandl & Levin, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ).”

“The same is true for the use of many vivid images and examples (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Hiebert et al., 1991).”

“Mayer and Gallini (1990) observed students learn more from illustrations in which both the elements of the diagram and the function of those elements are labelled.”