When is an illustration worth ten thousand words?

“Visual representations help students, especially novices, develop a more accurate mental model of phenomena [14].”

“This is coherent with previous studies on human capability in consuming diferent types of information [53].”

“However, we believe that the presence of visualizations is not enough to ensure comprehension [28], [62], as for some tasks we found that there were no performance improvements.”

“Graph reading is an important way to acquire scientific information in science and science education (Krohn, 1991; Larkin & Simon, 1987; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Roth & McGinn, 1997).”

“In a follow up study to the above research, Mayer and Gallini (1990) had four groups of 24 college students read expository descriptions related to three scientific systems (brakes, pumps, and generators).”

“This theory has received repeated empirical supported in the context of both educational (Stone & Glock, 1981; Peeck & Jans, 1987; Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Glenberg & Langston, 1992; Mayer et al., 1996) and cognitive psychology (Gyselinck & Tardieu, 1994; Gyselinck et al., 2002; Brunye et al., 2006).”

“Mayer and his colleagues [15; 16 , 18] have examined whether the dual-coding model can be extended to the processing of scientific diagrams.”

“In fact, the redundancy is beneficial for novices (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Such representations will have maximum effect when accompanying some learning material that is (relatively) new to the learner [4].”

“The advantage of spatially integrated displays for learning has been demonstrated in many studies (Chandler & Sweller, 1991, 1992, 1996; Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Sweller, Chandler, Tierney, & Cooper, 1990; Tarmizi & Sweller, 1988; Ward & Sweller, 1990).”

“In particular, research has shown that using animation plus text produces better learning outcomes than using text alone, as graphics that supplement text help learners better 52 process the material presented (e.g., Mayer, 1989; Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & Tapangco, 1996; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“However, not all illustrations lead to better comprehension and recall [39,42,43].”

“Finally, Mayer and Gallini (19) found that students with low prior knowledge benefited on conceptual recall and problem solving but not verbatim recall when given graphics describing both the components and action taking place.”

“Our approach is the reverse of the approach by Mayer and Gallini (1990) , who tested the understanding of the functioning of a hydraulic car break when using either a topology or explanative image.”

“These distinctions arise since high-knowledge learners possess well-structured mental schemas and the effects of different types and formats of multimedia representations affect minimally their learning capabilities (Mayer and Gallini 1991).”

“However, pictures are better than text in certain situations only — when text is incomprehensible, when illustrations are clear enough, when illustrations are explanative (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Najjar, 2001).”

“…foster users’ comprehension and consideration of the privacy-utility tradeoff across the three DP models, we developed an explanative illustration [43] for each model, in which verbal information in natural language and symbolic graphics were presented to illustrate DP privacy protection at an…”

“…the beneficial effect of supporting text–picture integration is more likely to occur when learners have low reading abilities or low prior knowledge because learners with good reading abilities or high prior knowledge can generate inferences across media without help (Mayer and Gallini, 1990).”

“…deductive reasoning (Bauer & Johnson-Laird, 1993), comprehension and problem solving (Glenberg & Langston, 1992; Masri, Parker, & Gemino, 2008; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Wright & Reid 1973), and recall (Glenberg & Langston, 1992; Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & Tapangaco, 1996; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“It has been suggested that presenting an explanation with words and pictures results in better learning than presenting words alone (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Sims, 1994).”

“Mayer and Gallini (1990) , in their famous paper, “When is an illustration worth ten thousand words?” counsel us that “…techniques for enhancing students’ visual learning of scientific information represent a relatively untapped potential for improving instruction” (p. 715).”

“Previous research has shown the combination of words and pictures leads to better learning than from words alone (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Clark & Pavio, 1991; Pavio, 1986; Pavio, 1990).”

“For example, students with low levels of content knowledge benefited more from viewing multimedia presentations than students with higher levels of content knowledge (Mayer and Gallini 1990; Mayer et al. 1995).”

“However, if images are added to text that help summarize important points or illustrate the concepts covered in the text graphically, then these images enhance understanding (Bransford & Johnson, 1972 ; Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ).”

“Mayer’s considerable body of research has shown that there are educational benefits for novices (Mayer, 1981, 1989, 1997, 2003; Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Sims, 1994).”

“7 Interaction of the overall cognitive load between detail richness and text load erate their own mental images, the less experienced students rely on the assistance of visualization to facilitate the construction of mental imagery (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“…such as the presentation of information in an organized way, pointing out transitions to new topics, using a variety of examples and frequent reminder of the essential principles (Maddox and Hoole, 1975; Smith and Cotton, 1980; Kallison, 1986; Mayer and Gallini, 1990; Hiebert et al., 1991).”

“…vs. verbal) has been largely debunked (Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer, & Bjor, 2008; Rogowski, Calhoun, & Tallal, 2015), utilizing multimodal learning, such as matching text with illustrations, has been shown to improve retention (Fadel & Lemke, 2008; Fiorella & Mayer, 2015; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Likewise, the students who read a text consisting of the captioned descriptions near the corresponding words generated about 65% more useful solutions to a subsequent problem-solving transfer test than did the counterpart students, who simply read the text (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Other researchers who share the belief that illustration can facilitate learning include Mayer (1989), Mayer and Gallini (1990), Mayer and Simms (1994), Harp and Mayer (1997), Carnel and Levin (2002), Kirsh (2002), Mayer, et al. (2005).”

“Results of studies have indicated a facilitative effect of images on text comprehension (e.g. Koenke & Otto, 1969; Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Peeck, 1987, 1994).”

“It has been suggested that multimedia programs may improve learning, in particular, among those with low levels of prior knowledge on the subject being taught and/or those with developmental disabilities, as multimedia components can help learners generate mental models of situations or events [8, 26–28].”

“Characteristics found from previous investigations of educational software were also analysed (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Liao, 1992; Wang & Sleeman, 1993; Caftori, 1994; Van Dusen & Worthen, 1995; Berson, 1996; McCoy, 1996; Hughes, 1998; Crozier, 1999; Anonymous, 2000) and from handbooks on composing…”

“Theorists (e.g., Larkin & Simon, 1987; Levin, 1982; Mayer & Gallini, 1990) have suggested that visual representations play a critical role in problem solving because conceptual meanings, spatial relations, and structural configurations can be displayed clearly and economically.”

“In order to truly understand a domain, learners should go beyond a series of rote facts to understand interrelationships, particularly causal relationships (Bowdle & Gentner, 1997; Zeitsman & J. Clement, 1997; Glynn, Law & Doster, 1998; Glynn, Yeany & Britton, 1991; Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ).”

“In contrast, solving the short answer problems required participants to draw connections across facts and make inferences about information in the passage (similar to Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Establishing connections between images and text annotations in an anatomical diagram is already a challenging task for many learners, and may be exacerbated by rich perceptual detail that makes it difficult to extract salient information (Weidenmann, 1989; Mayer and Gallini, 1990; Mayer, 2005).”

“In addition, they adhere to the embodiment of sequential operation processes in illustrations to show how scientific devices work [47].”

“Thus, to enhance the di-dactical functioning of visuals, specific circum-stances have to be met (Mayer and Gallini 1990).”

“These strategies are particularly effective for students with low prior knowledge (e.g., Davenport, Yaron, Klahr & Koedinger, 2008; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“First, the conjunction of diagram and text is a common style used in scientific publications (Hannus & Hy€on€a, 1999; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“…lack prior knowledge about the topic, and (d) understanding rather than retention of specific details is used as an outcome measure (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Anderson, 1991; Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & Tapangco, 1996; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Mayer, Steinhoff, Bower, & Mars, 1995).”

“This might also explain, why multimedia effects have been observed with visuo-spatial contents (e.g., Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“For example, in Mayer & Gallini (1990) , students read texts about scientific devices (e.g.”

“While Mayer has demonstrated that this redundancy can create a detriment to learning ( Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Moreno, 2003) his demonstrations were with text and animations.”

“• Illustrations are used to explain a certain topic, which is more expressive than verbal communication [6].”

“For example, including appropriate static images has been shown to produce better learning of biology (Ainsworth & Th Loizou, 2003), physics (Chi, Bassok, Lewis, Reimann, & Glaser, 1989; Loftus & Harley, 2004), and mechanical devices (Hegarty, 1992; Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Hypotheses 1 and 2 Considering that the effectiveness of the multimedia principle has been demonstrated in numerous studies (Mayer and Gallini 1990; Mayer and Anderson 1991, 1992; Mayer et al. 1996; Ponce and Mayer 2014), and that the application of the augmented multimedia principle represents its…”

“(Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Learning instructions presented through illustrations has better recall percentage [37].”

“Offering well-organised and attractive instruction is a class practice that refers to a clear and structured learning climate and the use of a wide variety of vivid images and examples (Mayer & Gallini, 1990), so that all students are motivated and involved in the lessons.”

“Mayer’s (1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Anderson, 1991) empirical studies show that an effective illustration model should use images or diagrams to reorganize and integrate the acquired information.”