When is an illustration worth ten thousand words?

“Taken together, these findings suggest that semantic context can help scaffold new information, connect it to prior knowledge and improve comprehension [40,41].”

“Though pictography has not been widely used in expository applications, graphic notations, such as symbols, flow charts, graphs, and semantic maps are well-established aids for expository learning in children as young as seven years of age (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Karmiloff-Smith, 1979).”

“” [35, p. 715] This is exemplified in the work undertaken by Mayer et al. as: the major parts of a braking system include the tube, wheel cylinder, smaller piston, brake drum, and brake shoe.”

“This type of explanatory representation is referred to as a system topology (Mayer and Gallini 1990).”

“…example, Orgill and Bodner (2004) found that people were better able to memorise a visual analogy instruction than a verbal analogy instruction and Mayer and Gallini (1990) showed that recall of conceptual information and the ability to infer its meaning, benefitted from incorporating a visual…”

“The empirical studies in using different types of mapping in education show the learners can follow the maps easier than verbal and written types of description (Larkin & Simon, 1987; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Sabry & Baldwin, 2003); system experience (Holscherl & Strubel, 2000), prior knowledge and spatial ability ( Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ) and occupational experience (Durling et al., 1996).”

“Visual elements such as images, illustrations, and infographics offer several advantages (Levie and Lentz, 1982; Mayer, 1989; Mayer and Gallini, 1990).”

“…selected for the needs of scientific disciplines other than geography (for example biology, technical disciplines, psychology) is a major limit of studies focusing on learning from visuals and their potential impact on children’s conceptions (Peeck 1993; Buchtler 2006; Mayer and Gallini 1990).”

“, 2014) and investigate the relationship between students’ graphical and reading comprehension (Mayer and Gallini, 1990; Hannus and Hyönä, 1999; Roberts and Brugar, 2014).”

“This problem may reduce the effectiveness of students’ learning significantly (for example Behnke, 2017; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Kim, Lim & Yang, 2016).”

“Shepard et al [9] and Mayer et al[10] made the connection between visual clues, the memory process, and the recall of new knowledge.”

“…to a visual element receives strong support from studies in educational psychology, particularly in relation to science textbooks for primary- and secondary-school students (e.g., Bernard, 1990; Harp & Mayer, 1997; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Reinking, Hayes, & McEneaney, 1988; Slough & McTigue, 2013).”

“…for any use which may be made of the information contained therein. www.intechopen.com Methodologies, Tools and New Developments for E-Learning 108 different ways of transmitting information (Mayer & Moreno, 1998); the customization of the teaching / learning dynamic (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Diverse works have underlined the efficacy of these multimedia resources in the teaching-learning process [1,2,10,11].”

“He found that in the case of words and pictures coordinated in a single frame (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990), or animation and sound concurrently presented (Mayer & Anderson, 1991; hfayer & Anderson, 1992) contiguity enhanced learning, As with Rieber, then, Mayer and his…”

“Figure 1: Car brake diagram with arrows (adapted from Mayer & Gallini (1990) )”

“In cognitive science, levels of understanding can be described as varying from focusing on surface, literal features to deep understanding involving formation of mental models (Johnson-Laird, 1983; Kintsch, 1988; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Our results are consistent with Mayer et al. [129, 132], suggesting that modalities should be considered in combination with individual traits and the specific usage context.”

“…other studies attest to the pedagogical benefits of using video in education, such as facilitation of problem-solving and technological skills (Mayer & Gallini, 1990); ‘inspire and facilitate mastery learning and students, engagement in student-centred learning activity, improved grades,…”

“The combination of visual and text information is a useful explanation strategy when it meets four conditions [35]: (1) the text is easy for all users to understand; (2) the visuals are created and evaluated based on the user’s comprehension; (3) the visual representations are employed to provide…”

“Mayer and Gallini (1990) partially validated this effect where they found low-experience learners benefitted from one type of treatment and not another, but there was no difference in learning between treatments for the high-experience learners.”

“As a result, instructional strategies that experts prefer may not work for novices, and strategies with support, or scaffolding, that are highly effective for novices may not be preferred by experts (Mayer and Gallini, 1990; Kalyuga et al., 1998; Kalyuga et al., 2003; Stofer, 2016).”

“Using a formal and agreed notation notation helps to interpret descriptions even with low prior knowledge on the subject [79].”

“Discussions in previous sections established that pictorial information in instructions enhance recall and recognition of information related to the task (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Najjar, 1998; Sternberg, 2006).”

“…com esse enfoque, há os que se preocupam com o papel da imagem para a compreensão e auxílio na interpretação de textos (PERALES PALLACIOS, 2006; MAYER & GALLINI, 1990), os que fazem uso de desenhos (PACCA et al.,2003) para explicitar os modelos dos alunos, os que consideram as representações…”

“Following Levin's suggestions, Mayer and Gallini (1990) strongly recommend these kinds of pictures for the explanation of scientific issues.”

“In one study (Mayer & Gallini, 1990), college students read text with and without illustrations that explained the operation of automobile drum brakes.”

“Mayer and Gallini (1990) also showed in a series of experiments concerning reasoning about models for explaining how radar and pumping systems work, that adding pictorial models to textual descriptions improved problem solving performance by an average of over 60 percent.”

“We designed explanative illustrations (Mayer & Gallini, 1990) for each model, in which verbal information in natural language and symbolic graphics are presented to promote the comprehension and consideration of the privacy-utility tradeoff across the three DP models.”

“Empirical studies (e.g. Doolittle, 2002; Mayer and Anderson, 1992; Mayer and Gallini, 1990; McKay, 1999) discuss and demonstrate the potential and conditions for visual and multimedia illustrations to be helpful in comprehending science texts.”

“For example, based on Mayer and colleagues’ research (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Sims, 1994), graphics may benefit students’ higher-order learning skills, such as problem-solving transfer, but not verbal recall.”

“pictures, maps, drawings, illustrations, and diagrams to enhance understanding [1].”

“However, the effect for learning has been claimed to be valid only if the prior knowledge on the problem is low (Mayer and Gallini, 1990).”

“In addition, Mayer and Gallini (1990) investigated the use of pre-task and in-task schematic models to assist students’ comprehension of technical materials.”

“Estudos mostram a eficácia da linguagem visual e das atividades multimídia, em especial de animações combinadas com narração, na aprendizagem (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Heyden, 2004; Stith, 2004; McClean et al., 2005).”

“Knowledge effect: Mayer’s study shows that students who have less prior knowledge tended to show stronger multimedia effects than students who have high levels of prior knowledge [54], [55].”

“Indeed, several studies by Mayer and colleagues have found that understanding a system is enhanced when text and pictures are presented simultaneously to learners (e.g. Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Moreover, many studies have investigated the comprehension of illustrated texts, for instance, expository texts describing the function of technical devices such as brakes or pumps (e.g., Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; for a review see Mayer, 1997).”

“…consisted of the following: ● Learner characteristics—including, learning style (visual, auditory or kinaesthetic; Sabry & Baldwin, 2003); system experience (Holscherl & Strubel, 2000), prior knowledge and spatial ability (Mayer & Gallini, 1990) and occupational experience (Durling et al., 1996).”

“Visual learning, in particular, is very effective in instructing and information retention (Mayer and Gallini, 1990).”

“In support of the innovations demonstrated by Lego and IKEA manuals, step-by-step illustrations improve recall of conceptual knowledge and problem-solving information (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“The multimedia effect, or the advantages of reading text with diagrams over text-only reading (Mayer, 2003), has been found to manifest in memory retention, deep comprehension, and inference generation on content (Butcher, 2006; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“[21]; [22]; [23]; [24]; [25]; [26]; [27]; [28]; [29]; [30]; [31]; [32]; [33]; [34]; [35]; [36]; [37]; [38]; [39]; [40]; [41]; [42]; [43]; [44]; [45]; [46]; [47]; [48]; [49].”

“Participants might construct their knowledge based on both graphics and texts (Mayer and Gallini, 1990).”

“In particular, semantic illustrations evoke meaningful learning by drawing learners’ attention to the explanative information and organising the information into a coherent system of representation (Mayer, 1989; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“…model is crucial to the end user’s gainfully applying the system to real-world work, US strives to guide the formation of such a correct model; by explicitizing established misconceptions and subsequently eradicating them [21], or by presenting a conceptual model as depicted in Figure 1 [22, 23].”

“A study by Mayer & Gallini (1990) indicated that pictorial support aided students’ comprehension and understanding of science instructional texts, and that the benefit was greater for low prior knowledge learners.”

“The study utilized a reading passage about the braking system titled Car Brake Passage (i.e., using text only from Mayer’s multimedia work; Mayer & Gallini, 1990), which was adapted to Turkish.”

“…arises from “semantic context”—related information such as titles, advance goals, or illustrations that make it easier for people to partition incoming information and connect it to their prior knowledge (Ausubel, 1960; Bransford & Johnson, 1972; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Pichert & Anderson, 1977).”

“Studies conducted at the K-12 level, on the other hand, seem to be limited mainly to the comparison of 2D and 3D media (i.e., (Akıllı and Seven 2014; Günter et al. 2011; Mayer and Gallini 1990)).”