When is an illustration worth ten thousand words?

“…the scientific or techni- Un i v e r s i ty stU d e n ts’ Co n C ep t U al i z ati o n an d in te r p r e tati o n o f to p o g r a p h iC Map s 381 cal systems illustrated in the visuals is a beneficial process (Mayer & Gallini, 1990), and prior knowledge plays an important role in this process.”

“…of work by Richard Mayer and his colleagues support the contention that multimedia learning (presenting information in two or more formats such as words and pictures) can be superior to single ways (Mayer, 1997; Mayer et al., 1996; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Mayer & Sims, 1994).”

“A second common manner of accomplishing this goal of showing dynamics is through a series of frames (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Thus, they should depict system topology and component behavior [13].”

“…twist on the educational psychology literature showing that pictures can help establish context and meaning, and prompt remembering of related ideas (e.g., Bransford & Johnson, 1972; Harp & Mayer, 1997; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Tindall-Ford, Chandler, & Sweller, 1997; Waddill & McDaniel, 1992).”

“…than can be possibly consumed in passing (A) will not be as effective as one with a minimalistic approach with carefully chosen elements (B). superiority effect (Pavio et al. 1968), a picture and appropriate text are superior to memory than words or pictures alone (see Mayer and Gallini 1990).”

“To the contrary, in a series of studies on text and illustrations about how devices work carried out in our lab at Santa Barbara the results consistently have shown that students learn more productively when text is presented within corresponding illustrations rather than when text and illustrations are presented on s…”

“…differences needs to involve the provision of multi-modal experiences including, for example the use of diagrams (Larkin & Simon, 1987; Lowe, 1986; Mayer & Gallini, 1990), heuristics (de Bono, 1976), or collaborative grouping through which individuals can construct their own unique…”

“Furthermore, when used to support text, the processing of visual artistic information can effectively promote a reading experience that highlights the most important information to facilitate deeper understanding for students (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Previous research indicates that people who see a text and-diagram description benefit if the text is presented close to the part of the diagram to which it refers [ 15 ].”

“For example, Mayer and Gallini (1990) demonstrated that physically”

“For example, Mayer and Gallini (1990) showed that learners with less domain-specific knowledge benefit more from multimedia material (text and pictures) than from text alone.”

“The usefulness of graphs and diagrams for visualisation has often been reported when readers have to learn from texts (e.g., Hegarty & Just, 1993; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Schnotz & Bannert, 2003; Schnotz, Bannert, & Seufert, 2002).”

“Conceptual descriptions are often used to increase users’ understanding and performance with the use of computer systems (Bayman & Mayer, 1988; Colaric, 2001; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Moreover, Mayer and Gallini (1990) found positive effects of annotations if these referred to parts and steps of scientific concepts.”

“The usefulness of graphs and diagrams for visualization has often been reported when readers have to learn from texts (e.g. Guri-Rozenblit, 1988; Hegarty & Just, 1993; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Sweller, Chandler, Tierney, & Cooper, 1990).”

“Computer multimedia increases attention and continuity of activity participation, and leads to improved learning (Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Paivio, 1991).”

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“Levin and Mayer ( 1993 ), Mayer and Gallini ( 1990 ), Mayer and Anderson ( 1991 ) and Mayer, Steinhoff, Bower, and Mars ( 1995 ) all used integrated illustrations within scientific text and found that integrated instructional materials had a positive effect on understanding and learning.”

“In the field of learning psychology, many studies have shown that dynamic visuals are used as learning instructions for descriptive, “scientific” explanations (often describing causes and effects), such as mechanical and electronic systems (e.g., brakes, pumps, generators [21], [ 22 ]; electronic circuit systems [23])…”

“It is probably when concrete referents that you are not yet familiar with are introduced, such as objects or actions that are technical or that are alien to your own culture, that visuals are the most helpful (Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“In scientific text, the cognitive conditions for effective illustrations are appropriate text, tests, illustrations, and learners (Mayer and Gallini, 1990).”

“Most textbooks overwhelm teachers and students (Shannon 1987; Bianchini and Kelly 2003; Moss 2006; Choi et al. 2010) and provide graphical representations that are unconnected to the text (Mayer and Gallini 1990; Slough et al. 2010).”

“problem solving, especially among non-specialists (Mayer and Gallini 1990).”

“…theory-related predictions have consistently found that concurrent presentation of pictures and text facilitates recall of target information in adults and children (for reviews, see Carney & Levin, 2002; Levie & Lentz, 1982; Levin, Anglin, & Carney, 1987; Mayer, 2001; and Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“The foundation for this work has been used to compare presentations in science learning [25, 26], multimedia explanations [23], and conceptual modeling in systems analysis [5, 13, 14].”

“Mayer, et. al. [ 12 , 11] has shown that animations can improve learning.”

“Mayer (2005) argues that presenting material in verbal and visual modes allows instructors to take advantage of the full capacity of learners’ cognitive processing.”

“However, although the theory accurately predicts results with adult readers (e.g., Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ), results for K – 12 readers have been less clear (see McTigue, 2009 ; Schrader & Rapp, 2016 ).”

“Although the physical placement of inscriptions in relation to the text seems not to interfere with the readers' understandings (eg, Mayer, 1989 ; Mayer & Gallini, 1990 ), having to flip pages to look at figures placed far from the index in the text is at least awkward and labor intensive for the reader.”

“Furthermore, Nugent (1992) found increased achievement for combinations of audio and images but not for audio and text, whereas other studies (Mayer and Gallini, 1990) revealed that visual cues amplify and explain text and facilitate the recall of new knowledge because visual cues create imagery…”

“…stimulating motivation and enhancing recall, have been emphasised by educationists and visual literacy experts alike (e.g. Paivio 1986; Sinatra 1986; Mayer and Gallini 1990; Wileman 1993; Mayer and Sims 1994; Mayer 1999), as well as by experts on low-literacy materials (Doak et al. 1996, 91, 94).”

“In further examinations of the contiguity effect, Mayer and Gallini (1990) and Mayer et al. (1995) uncover interactions with what Solomon identified as person effects.”

“Second, if, as predicted, JPEI is indeed more effective than SPEI for consumers’ cognition, how should JPEI be spatially located? In the extending research on DCT, scholars have proposed that individuals can cognize better when corresponding verbal and non-verbal codes are presented close to each other rather than far…”

“Moreover, in comparison to their counterparts, those with enhanced MMs are less likely to remember facts irrelevant to the task at hand (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Prior research suggests that computerized learning programs that communicate information using enhanced interactive visual stimuli have had success in a variety of domains (e.g., [8, 10, 15]).”

“The helpfulness of such graphs and diagrams has often been reported when readers have to learn from texts (e.g., Guri-Rozenblit, 1988; Hegarty & Just, 1993; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Sweller, Chandler, Tierney, & Cooper, 1990).”

“From a pedagogical perspective, if, as a popular expression goes, a (static) picture is worth a thousand words (see Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Mayer & Sims, 1994; Larkin & Simon, 1987 for critical discussions of this notion), then a scene of multiple pictures in motion may be worth 10,000 words.”

“More-over, Mayer and Gallini (1990) contend that an image is worth 10,000 words.”

“In lieu of the “narrative” label proposed by Kress and van Leeuwen (1996), we adopted the “explanative” label from Mayer and Gallini (1990) and Harp and Mayer (1997) as a better descriptor for these graphics, which largely consist of process models that are so important in biology (Griffard, 2013).”

“…to read (e.g., Fang, 1996; Nielsen Hibbing & Rankin-Erickson, 2003), understanding and applying sci-entific or other technical concepts (e.g., Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Reid & Beveridge, 1990), and memorizing information by the means of mnemonic images (e.g., Dretzke, 1993; Rummel et al.,…”

“Hypothesis 3.Alternatively, the embedded icons could be more beneficial, because they reduce the load on working memory by both directing the learner’s attention to the key elements (Pollock et al., 2002), and integrating them into the text of the instruction ( Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Sweller et al., 1998).”

“Benefiting from diagrams depends in part on the mental processes or resources the problem solver has to work with, whether expertise or ability [6, 10].”

“The study material included a 675-word reading passage about brakes (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“…and mental model construction in math, science, and reading are well documented in the literature (e.g., text illustrations: Levie & Lentz, 1982; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; animation: Al-Balushi & Al-Hajri, 2014; Mayer & Anderson, 1992; diagrams: Fiore, Cuevas, & Oser, 2003; Hegarty & Just, 1993;…”

“Many studies have demonstrated that learning from both text and pictures together promotes not only retention (Levin et al. 1987, Peeck 1987, Rummel et al. 2003) but also comprehension and transfer, in textbooks and on computer screens (Mayer 1989, Mayer and Gallini 1990).”

“The workability of these design principles may also vary as a function of individual differences such as domain specific knowledge (Mayer and Gallini 1990), learning style (Jonassen and Grabowski 1993) information coordination ability (Yee et al.”

“In addition to that, the numerous panels used in comics also facilitate students' learning experience in the subject by highlighting important information in separate panels (Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“Furthermore, visual illustration using statistical tools or graphical methods are important to engage students in their cognitive learning space (Mayer and Gallini 1990).”

“Students are more likely to make connections among different ideas when the information is represented in two distinct mental models (Mayer, 1999; Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”

“…on working memory (Liu, Kemper, & McDowd, 2009; Pike, Barnes, & Barron, 2010; Torcasio & Sweller, 2010), and depending on the content of the picture and its relation to the text, they can instead impair understanding and memory (Harp & Mayer, 1997; Mayer & Gallini, 1990; Waddill & McDaniel, 1992).”

“Other evidence has shown that illustrations enhance college students’ recall performance (e.g., prose recall, Waddill & McDaniel, 1992; Waddill, McDaniel, & Einstein, 1988; recall of technical information in expository text, Mayer & Gallini, 1990).”