The DOI matches its Crossref record; 37 of the 37 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.
Abstract
On the basis of a new model of motivation, we examined the effects of 3 dimensions of teacher (n = 14) behavior (involvement, structure, and autonomy support) on 144 children's (Grades 3-5) behavioral and emotional engagement across a school year. Correlational and path analyses revealed that teacher involvement was central to children's experiences in the classroom and that teacher provision of both autonomy support and optimal structure predicted children's motivation across the school year. Reciprocal effects of student motivation on teacher behavior were also found. Students who showed higher initial behavioral engagement received subsequently more of all 3 teacher behaviors. These findings suggest that students who are behaviorally disengaged receive teacher responses that should further undermine their motivation. The importance of the student-teacher relationship, especially interpersonal involvement, in optimizing student motivation is highlighted. What are the factors that motivate children to learn? Educators and parents value motivation in school for its own sake as well as for its long-term contribution to children's learning and self-esteem. Highly motivated children are easy to identify: They are enthusiastic, interested, involved, and curious; they try hard and persist; and they actively cope with challenges and setbacks. These are the children who should stay in school longer, learn more, feel better about themselves, and continue their education after high school. Recent research has borne this out (Ames & Ames, 1984, 1985; Pintrich, 1991; Stipek, 1988). Although motivated students are easy to recognize, they are difficult to find. Research shows that across the preschool to high school years, children's intrinsic motivation decreases and they feel increasingly alienated from learning (Harter, 1981). Why is it so difficult to optimize student motivation? Decades of psychological and educational research
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In the citing paper
“The majority of studies (86 out of 94 studies) described the two constructs as two independent but positively related aspects of teachers' instructional approaches (e.g., Connell & Wellborn, 1991;Skinner & Belmont, 1993;Tucker et al., 2002).Correlations between autonomy support and structure ranged from r = 0.01 to r = 0.87.”
From Blending Teacher Autonomy Support and Provision of Structure in the Classroom for Optimal Motivation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2025) · cites this paper as Skinner & Belmont, 1993
In the citing paper
“As teachers both strongly influence students' behaviors and are strongly identified with schools (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), these students' weaker relationships with their teachers appear to reduce their SOBAS in hierarchical cultures.”
From Students’ Sense of Belonging at School in 41 Countries: Cross-Cultural Variability (2016) · cites this paper as Skinner & Belmont, 1993
In the citing paper
“In a controlling environment, teachers may be perceived as emotionally closed, and exhibit behaviors that interfere with or bypass students’ inner motives (in an attempt to control what students should think, feel, and do).”
Citations
Cites
Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior
Miller, K. A. J., Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1988) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2070638 · Cited by 15,406
Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance.
Pintrich, P. R., & De Groot, E. V. (1990) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.1.33 · Cited by 8,332
An Attributional Theory of Motivation and Emotion
Weiner, B. L. (1986) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4612-4948-1 · Cited by 5,036
Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence.
White, R. W. (1963) · Scott, Foresman eBooks · doi:10.1037/14156-005 · Cited by 4,835
Self-Efficacy and Academic Motivation
Schunk, D. H. (1991) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.1991.9653133 · Cited by 4,292
Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance.
Nicholls, J. G. (1984) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.91.3.328 · Cited by 4,161
Ainsworth, M. S. (1989) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.44.4.709 · Cited by 3,231
Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory.
Ryan, R. M. (1982) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.43.3.450 · Cited by 2,721
A Handbook of Child Psychology
(1934) · Nature · doi:10.1038/133515b0 · Cited by 2,295
Instructional Design Theories and Models
(1983) · doi:10.4324/9780203824283 · Cited by 2,192 · cited 1×
“A comprehensive model suggested by Keller (1983) includes four basic strategies: attention focusing, relevance, confidence building, and satisfaction.”
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
School Engagement: Potential of the Concept, State of the Evidence
Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543074001059 · Cited by 12,581
“Some studies examine how contexts interact with individual needs to promote or undermine engagement (Connell, 1990; Eccles & Midgley, 1989; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMotivational beliefs, values, and goals
Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135153 · Cited by 7,587
“When one or more of the needs is not fulfilled, children will become disaffected and unmotivated (see Connell et al. 1994, Skinner & Belmont 1993 for supportive evidence).”
BackgroundGames, Motivation, and Learning: A Research and Practice Model
Garris, R. D., Ahlers, R. H., & Driskell, J. E. (2002) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878102238607 · Cited by 3,480
“Skinner and Belmont (1993) noted that although motivated learners are easy to recognize, they are hard to find; and they are, we would add, hard to create.”
BackgroundSense of relatedness as a factor in children's academic engagement and performance.
Furrer, C. J., & Skinner, E. A. (2003) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.148 · Cited by 2,730
“For example, when children are engaged, they are provided with more motivational support by their teachers (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHandbook of Motivation at School
Wentzel, K. R., & Wigfield, A. (2009) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203879498 · Cited by 2,521
Metadata
- Authors
- Skinner, E. A., & Belmont, M. J.
- Affiliations
- Portland State University (US)
- ORCID
- Skinner, Ellen A.
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 1993-12
- Volume
- 85
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 571-581
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2165027149
- Cited by
- 3,428
- References
- 37
- Citations by year
- 2026: 115 · 2025: 153 · 2024: 181 · 2023: 290 · 2022: 180 · 2021: 212 · 2020: 227 · 2019: 197 · 2018: 164 · 2017: 175 · 2016: 171 · 2015: 176 · 2014: 196 · 2013: 162 · 2012: 157
- FWCI
- 9.14
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- student motivation, teacher behavior, behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, teacher participation, autonomy support, classroom structure, reciprocal effects, teacher-student relationship, intrinsic motivation, elementary school students
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