Motivation in the classroom: Reciprocal effects of teacher behavior and student engagement across the school year.

“A comprehensive model suggested by Keller (1983) includes four basic strategies: attention focusing, relevance, confidence building, and satisfaction.”

“Some studies examine how contexts interact with individual needs to promote or undermine engagement (Connell, 1990; Eccles & Midgley, 1989; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“When one or more of the needs is not fulfilled, children will become disaffected and unmotivated (see Connell et al. 1994, Skinner & Belmont 1993 for supportive evidence).”

“Skinner and Belmont (1993) noted that although motivated learners are easy to recognize, they are hard to find; and they are, we would add, hard to create.”

“For example, when children are engaged, they are provided with more motivational support by their teachers (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“If children’s basic needs are met, their engagement in learning activities will increase (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Students reported on the involvement, structure, and autonomy support they experienced from their teachers (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“The construct of engagement is positioned in that nexus (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…student activities, marking the boundaries of activities and orchestrating the transitions between them, offering task-focused and personal control-enhancing feedback , and providing consistency in the lesson (Brophy, 2006; Doyle, 2006; Huston-Stein et al., 1977; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“That is, teachers’ autonomy support could enhance students’ engagement, but it is equally likely that students’ active engagement could enhance teachers’ provision of autonomy support (Pelletier et al., 2002; Pelletier & Vallerand, 1996; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“That is, teachers generally react to student displays of high-quality engagement with a more autonomy-supportive motivating style, while they react to student displays of disengagement with a more controlling style (Pelletier, Seguin-Levesque, & Legault, 2002 ; Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ) .”

“Skinner and Belmont (1993) explored these reciprocal relationships using path analysis.”

“In educational psychology, for instance, ‘student engagement’ was found to be pivotal in a student’s receipt of teacher support (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) and achieved results (Bryson & Hand, 2007).”

“…as supportive they report higher levels of interest and enjoyment in their schoolwork (Goodenow, 1993; Fraser & Fisher, 1982; Midgley et al., 1989; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), a more positive academic self-concept (Felner, Aber, Primavera, & Cauce, 1985), and greater expectancies for success in the…”

“Students reported on the level of involvement, structure, and autonomy support that they experienced from their teachers ( Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ): 16 items tapped involvement, including warmth/affection, dedication of resources, knowledge about the student and his or her needs, and dependability; 8 items tapped hos…”

“…as a fourth dpsych.2011.05.002 and support for autonomy (Birch & Ladd, 1997; Murray & Greenberg, 2000; Reeve, Jang, Carrell, Jeon, & Barch, 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, & Kindermann, 2008; Wentzel, 1997), just as it is responsive to students’ own motivational…”

“Using a multimethod, multilevel approach, this study examined the link between classroom emotional climate and academic achievement, including the role of student engagement as a mediator.”

“…3 through 5) with higher behavioral engagement in the fall experienced increases in teacher support over the school year, and students with higher emotional engagement experienced increases in teacher autonomy granting as the year progressed (Furrer & Skinner, 2009 ; Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ) .”

“…predict more positive development for all children (Brophy & Good, 1986; Gage & Needel, 1989; Howes et al., 2005; NICHD ECCRN, 2003; Pianta, LaParo, Payne, Cox, & Bradley, 2002; RimmKaufman, Laparo, Pianta, & Downer, in press; Ritchie & Howes, 2003; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Stipek et al., 1998).”

“Further, in the self-system approach, school engagement is also hypothesized to be malleable and responsive to interactions between both the individual and the learning environment (Connell, 1990; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…out of teachers and that students’ behavioral disengagement pulls out a more conflictual or controlling style (Pelletier, SeguinLevesque, & Legault, 2002; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), although we can find no evidence that emotional or cognitive engagement pulls a more supportive style out of teachers.”

“For students, satisfaction of the three basic needs through emotional involvement, provision of structure, and autonomy support from teachers has been shown to contribute to academic motivation and achievement (Bao and Lam 2008; Furrer and Skinner 2003; Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“This framework recognizes that the starting point for understanding contextual infl uences on development is to recognize that development occurs through interactions between the capacities and skills of the person and the resources available to them in various settings, and that this process is…”

“Self-determination (or selfsystems) theory (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Skinner & Belmont, 1993) suggests that children are most motivated to learn when adults support their need to feel competent, positively related to others, and autonomous (Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2000).”

“In fact, past findings lead us to suspect that both of these effects can and do occur (Pelletier, Seguin-Levesque, & Legault, 2002; Reeve, Jang, et al., 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Research in education (Cordova & Lepper, 1996; Gottfried, Fleming, & Gottfried, 1994; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991; Lepper & Cordova, 1992; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997) and in physical activity and health contexts (Black & Weiss, 1992; Goudas, Fox, Biddle, & Underwood,…”

“This focus on risk taking in the service of learning is guided by a diverse set of research findings that stress a willingness of the learner to go to their social and intellectual edges with a positive attitude.(12) Manifestations of this engagement are what Edmondson calls learning-oriented behaviors: these include…”

“Still, there are apparently many who remain broad in their outlook on academic learning and development (e.g., Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wentzel & Asher, 1995).”

“Given this conceptualization of structure, it is apparent that autonomy support and structure exist as two different—not opposite—aspects of teachers’ motivating styles, each of which contributes positively to students’ motivation (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Engagement indicates the passion and emotional involvement in participating and completing learning activities (Skinner and Belmont, 1993).”

“Third, studies have focused on engagement in elementary schools and, to a lesser extent, secondary schools (e.g., Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Emotional engagement is defined as students’ emotional reactions to academic subject areas such as science or to school more generally (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2012; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“More studies are needed to examine the stability of teacher–child relationships within a single year (Skinner & Belmont, 1993) as well as across multiple years (Hamilton, 2000; Howes et al., 1998).”

“Furthermore, the reciprocal effects of teacher motivation on student motivation (see Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ) should be investigated in the context of PE. Also, in addition to teachers, the influence of peers on student motivation should be examined.”

“Positive affect as an engagement variable is associated with academic achievement in reading and math (Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner, Wellborn, & Connell, 1990).”

“…shown that students perceive teachers’ support for autonomy and competence needs as positively correlated (e.g., Kaplan, Assor, & Roth, 2002; E. A. Skinner & Belmont, 1993), we controlled for the effects of competence-supportive teaching in our tests of the role of autonomy-supportive teaching…”

“N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript N IH -PA Author M anuscript Eccles, 1989; Ryan, Stiller, & Lynch, 1994; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), behavioral engagement has tended to be the focus of research with elementary students (Alexander, Entwisle, & Dauber, 1993; Birch & Ladd, 1997;…”

“For example, some have argued for specific teaching behaviors to support competence (e.g., provision of structure and instruction for improvement) and relatedness (e.g., involvement, cooperative learning, and social support; Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Hollembeak & Amorose, 2005; Ntoumanis, 2005; Skinner & Belmont, 1993…”

“Furthermore, Skinner and Belmont (1993) stressed that researchers must investigate the source of differences among teachers in their provision of autonomy support.”

“On the basis of Skinner and Belmont (1993) and Ladd et al. (1999), we expected the association between teacher support and student engagement to be reciprocal.”

“…theory, a third psychological need is emphasized in addition to self-determination and competence, namely relatedness, which also explains some of the motivational underpinnings of students’ engagement and commitment to school (Goodenow, 1993; Ryan & Powelson, 1991; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Forinstance, in studies of elementary school-aged students, teacherprovisions of structure, guidance, and autonomy have been related toa range of positive, motivational outcomes (eg, Grolnick & Ryan, 1989; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“The ‘reverse’ direction of effects, for example, academic achievement predicting school belonging, or reciprocal effects (e.g. Skinner and Belmont 1993), are rarely considered (Juvonen 2006).”

“It may be useful to collect longitudinal data and to use cross-lagged analyses in future studies to look for reciprocal effects of the dimensions of teaching style and the use of self-regulatory skills (see e.g. Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Non-experimental research on controlling behaviors of teachers and parents has typically combined various autonomy enhancing and suppressive practices into one composite variable named autonomy support (e.g., Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997).”

“Moreover, some evidence has been found that associations might also be in the other direction, for example from engagement to teacher– student relationships (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Some teacher rating scales include items assessing both behavioral and emotional engagement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993 ) , and others refl ect a multidimensional model of engagement (i.e., behavioral, emotional, and cognitive) (Wigfi eld et al., 2008 ) .”

“Given this uncertainly, we suggest that future research collect a data set that is able to compare students' perceptions, teachers' perceptions, and observers' ratings (for examples, see Haerens et al., 2015; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Student engagement in extra curriculum activities promotes academic achievement (Skinner & Belmont, 1993), increases grade rate (Connell, Spencer, & Aber, 1994), triggering student performance and positive expectations about academic abilities (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…engagement (Assor et al., 2002; Benita, Roth, & Deci, 2014; Hafen et al., 2012; Jang, Reeve, & Deci, 2010; Reeve, Jang, Hardre, & Omura, 2002; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Skinner et al., 2008) and their motivation to develop and improve their competence (i.e., mastery motivation; Ciani,…”

“Children’s engagement also has been found to be directly influenced by their perceptions of teacher warmth and interest (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Emotional engagement is often operationalized as identification with school (Voelkl, 1997) and various emotions related to school work, teachers, and peers (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“…all children (Brophy & Good, 1986; Gage & Needels, 1989; Howes et al., in press; NICHD ECCRN, 2003; Pianta et al., 2002; Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2005; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Stipek et al., 1998) as well as contribute to closing achievement gaps for children from different risk groups (Hamre &…”

“Conceptualized in this way, structure primarily nurtures students’ need for competence as students who are given sufficient structure likely feel able to effectively deal with the study tasks at hand (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Having a sense of relatedness can improve engagement: for example, students who feel a sense of belonging and relatedness with parents, teachers, and peers exhibit a higher degree of engagement in school work (Furrer and Skinner 2003; Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“…are additionally important aspects of a teacher’s motivating style (Jang et al., 2010; Sierens, Vansteenkiste, Goossens, Soenens, & Dochy, 2009; Skinner & Belmont, 1993), and the needs for competence and relatedness are additionally important aspects of students’ classroom motivation (as per…”

“…Katz, 2004; Assor & Kaplan, 2001; Assor, Kaplan, & Roth, 2002; Connell, Spencer, & Aber, 1994; Deci et al., 1996; Flink, Boggiano, & Barrett, 1990; Grolnick & Ryan, 1987; Grolnick, Ryan, & Deci, 1991; Kaplan, Assor, & Roth, 2003; Reeve, Jang, Carrell, Jeon, & Barch, 2004; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“This dimension is often studied within the developmental literature under the construct of autonomy support (e.g., Anderman & Midgley, 1998; Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Skinner and Belmont (1993) observed similar results in the classroom.”

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“This corresponds with findings of previous studies in motivation and the TSR, indicating that student engagement was more significant for teachers’ positive relationship with students than students’ achievement level (e.g. Juvonen 2006; Skinner and Belmont 1993; Tal and Babad 1990).”

“Self-determination theory (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Skinner & Belmont, 1993) posits that motivation to learn is in part related to adults’ support for competence, relationships, and autonomy (Roeser, Eccles, & Sameroff, 1998).”

“…recent findings parallel the results of other researchers who have illustrated how teachers’ affective responses are important at both the academic or cognitive level and at the interpersonal level (e.g., Patrick, Anderman, Ryan, Edelin, & Midgley, 2001; Skinner & Belmont, 1993; Wentzel, 1997).”

“Skinner and colleagues have been gathering data for their model of emotional and behavioral engagement and disaffection since the 1990s (e.g., Skinner & Belmont, 1993) and have some of the clearest explications of indicators versus facilitators of engagement.”

“Intrinsic motivation was associated with instructional practices that focused on student interest and active participation in learning (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”

“Based on prior theorising by Skinner and Belmont (1993), by Jang, Reeve, and Deci (2010), and by Belmont et al. (1992), we distinguish structure into four components.”

“The quality of students’ relationships with teachers has consistently been linked with students’ positive perceptions of the classroom, and their engagement and achievement within predominantly European American samples ( Skinner and Belmont, 1993; Wentzel, 1997, 1998).”

“In other words, students’ initial perceptions of academic autonomy and teacher-related measures of belongingness can contribute to higher levels of engagement in learning, which in turn can elicit increased support for autonomy and belongingness from teachers (Skinner and Belmont 1993).”

“Smetana and Bitz (1996) found a trend that belief in the legitimacy of teachers' authority over conventional rules was associated with lower rates of misbehavior.”

“To externally validate our scale, we examined associations between perceived PCT and a well-validated measure of dimensions of need-supportive teaching, that is, involvement, structure, and autonomy support (Skinner & Belmont, 1993).”