Signaling as a cognitive guide in multimedia learning.
Abstract
In 3 experiments, students received a short science lesson on how airplanes achieve lift and then were asked to write an explanation (retention test) and to write solutions to 5 problems, such as how to design an airplane to achieve lift more rapidly (transfer test). For some students, the lesson contained signals, including a preview summary paragraph outlining the 3 main steps involved in lift, section headings, and pointer words such as because or as a result. The signaling did not add any additional content information about lift but helped clarify the structure of the passage. Students who received signaling generated significantly more solutions on the transfer test than did students who did not receive signaling when the explanation was presented as printed text (Experiment 1), spoken text (Experiment 2), and spoken text with corresponding animation (Experiment 3). Results are consistent with a knowledge construction view of multimedia learning in which learners seek to build mental models of cause-and-effect systems.
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Mautone and Mayer (2001) found students receiving lesson with signals performed significantly better in problem-solving than those who did not.
“Results suggested that students receiving the lesson with signals performed significantly better in the problem-solving task than those who did not.”
From Reading authentic EFL text using visualization and advance organizers in a multimedia learning environment (2007) · cites this paper as Mautone and Mayer (2001)
Signaling in a narrated animation was only effective when both animation and narration were signaled, not when only one was signaled.
“Furthermore, Mautone and Mayer (2001, Experiment 3) investigated the effect of signaling in a narrated animation and found that signaling was only effective when both the animation and the narration were signaled (signaled words were spoken with a slower, deeper intonation), but not when only the animation or the narration was signaled.”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Mautone and Mayer 2001
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BackgroundEffects of visual cues and self-explanation prompts: empirical evidence in a multimedia environment
Lin, L., Atkinson, R. K., Savenye, W. C., & Nelson, B. C. (2014) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2014.924531 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“However, the results of two other studies revealed that cueing was not effective when combined with cued narrations (Mautone & Mayer, 2001) or it was only effective for several seconds before the effect disappeared (Lowe & Boucheix, 2011).”
Signaling in expository hypertexts compensates for deficits in reading skill.
Naumann, J., Richter, T., Flender, J., Christmann, U., & Groeben, N. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.791 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Multiple Representations in Physics and Science Education – Why Should We Use Them?
Opfermann, M., Schmeck, A., & Fischer, H. E. (2017) · Models and modeling in science education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58914-5_1 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Effects of multimedia on cognitive load, self‐efficacy, and multiple rule‐based problem solving
Zheng, R. Z., McAlack, M., Wilmes, B., Kohler‐Evans, P., & Williamson, J. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00859.x · Cited by 67 · see citing works
South Korean Digital Textbook Project
Kim, J. H., & Jung, H.-Y. (2010) · Computers in the Schools · doi:10.1080/07380569.2010.523887 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Research on multimedia learning suggests that multimedia can foster cognitive change (Mariano, Doolittle, & Hicks, 2009; Mautone & Mayer, 2001) and facilitate information processing in learning (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Rieber & Kini, 1991).”
BackgroundLin, H., & Chen, T. (2007) · Language Learning & Technology · doi:10.64152/10125/44119 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“In another study by Mautone and Mayer (2001), students received a short science lesson on how airplanes lift.”
BackgroundWu, C., & Chiang, M.-C. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.012 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Besides from the above-mentioned, there are some rules that should be considered, such as seven research-based principles for the animation design (Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
BackgroundDoes language matter in multimedia learning? Personalization principle revisited.
Kartal, G. (2010) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019345 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Navarrete, E., Nehring, A., Schanze, S., Ewerth, R., & Hoppe, A. (2025) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-025-00481-x · Cited by 132 · see citing works
A Test of Spatial Contiguity for Virtual Human’s Gestures in Multimedia Learning Environments
Craig, S. D., Twyford, J., Irigoyen, N., & Zipp, S. A. (2015) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633115585927 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“A signaling effect in multimedia learning are elements that do not add information but instead improve the clarity of the passage by providing structure (Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
BackgroundCognitive Aging and Computer-Based Instructional Design: Where Do We Go From Here?
Gerven, P. W. M. V., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Tabbers, H. K. (2006) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9005-4 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“For a full understanding of Table 1, we discuss the guidelines produced by CLT and CTML according to the age-related cognitive declines that they might fit.”
BackgroundMethodUsing Instructional Features to Enhance Demonstration-Based Training in Management Education
Grossman, R., Salas, E., Pavlas, D., & Rosen, M. (2013) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2011.0527 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing in Multimedia Learning
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.019 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Self-citationAttention Guidance Strategies for Supporting Learning from Dynamic Visualizations
de Koning, B. B., & Jarodzka, H. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56204-9_11 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Improving instructional video design: A systematic review
Fyfield, M., Henderson, M., & Phillips, M. (2022) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.7296 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Watch and Learn? Using EDpuzzle to Enhance the Use of Online Videos
Mischel, L. J. (2018) · Management Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/2379298118773418 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The use of adjunct displays to facilitate comprehension of causal relationships in expository text
McCrudden, M. T., Schraw, G. J., & Lehman, S. (2007) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-007-9036-3 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“, the causal steps) salient to the learner (Mautone and Mayer 2001).”
BackgroundMethodHuk, T., Steinke, M., & Floto, C. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9116-7 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
“Mautone and Mayer (2001) state that their interpretations were limited by the fact that their presentation was short, involved only one passage, and did not take place in a classroom setting.”
BackgroundEffects of disfluency and test expectancy on learning with text
Eitel, A., & Kühl, T. (2015) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-015-9145-3 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2020) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.190 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Tugtekin, U., & Odabasi, H. F. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-10912-0 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“This finding may support the assumptions of the CTML (e.g., Harp & Mayer, 1998; Mautone & Mayer, 2001; Stull & Mayer, 2007).”
Resultvan der Spek, E. D., Wouters, P., & van Oostendorp, H. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01021.x · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Salge, C. A. D. L., Karahanna, E., & Thatcher, J. B. (2022) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2021/15598 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Explaining pictures: How verbal cues influence processing of pictorial learning material.
Glaser, M., & Schwan, S. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000044 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
The Role of Instructional Design in Persuasion: A Comics Approach for Improving Cybersecurity
Zhang-Kennedy, L., Chiasson, S., & Biddle, R. (2016) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2016.1136177 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“For example, Mautone and Mayer (2001) found that students’ performance increased if the lesson included headings, outline, and voice emphasis on key words during a narrated animation of how an airplane achieves lift.”
BackgroundLearning from instructional animations: H ow does prior knowledge mediate the effect of visual cues?
Arslan‐Ari, I. (2017) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12222 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“Cueing aids learners' cognitive processes by helping them select relevant information (Mautone & Mayer, 2001) and by emphasizing the organizational structure of the information and making the relations between elements more explicit (De Koning et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialUse of signaling to integrate desktop virtual reality and online learning management systems
Dodd, B. J., & Antonenko, P. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.05.016 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“…the context of online learning and desktop VR. Previous research on signaling has traditionally focused on system-paced and paper-based media (Mautone & Mayer, 2001; Mayer, 2008, pp. 351 – 387); however, future work should build on these fi ndings by examining their applicability in…”
BackgroundRichter, J., & Scheiter, K. (2019) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-019-09492-3 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Use of animated text to improve the learning of basic mathematics
Luzón, J. M., & Letón, E. (2015) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.04.016 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mautone, P. D., & Mayer, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- ORCID
- Mayer, Richard E.
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-06
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 377-389
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2054045882
- Cited by
- 444
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 8.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- signaling, cognitive guidance, multimedia learning, knowledge construction, mental models, transfer of learning, text structure, spoken text, animation, science instruction
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