Cognitive Load Measurement as a Means to Advance Cognitive Load Theory
Abstract
In this article, we discuss cognitive load measurement techniques with regard to their contribu-tion to cognitive load theory (CLT). CLT is concerned with the design of instructional methods that efficiently use people’s limited cognitive processing capacity to apply acquired knowledge and skills to new situations (i.e., transfer). CLT is based on a cognitive architecture that consists of a limited working memory with partly independent processing units for visual and auditory information, which interacts with an unlimited long-term memory. These structures and func-tions of human cognitive architecture have been used to design a variety of novel efficient in-structional methods. The associated research has shown that measures of cognitive load can re-veal important information for CLT that is not necessarily reflected by traditional performance-based measures. Particularly, the combination of performance and cognitive load measures has been identified to constitute a reliable estimate of the mental efficiency of instruc-tional methods. The discussion of previously used cognitive load measurement techniques and their role in the advancement of CLT is followed by a discussion of aspects of CLT that may benefit by measurement of cognitive load. Within the cognitive load framework, we also discuss some promising new techniques.
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Self-reporting is one of the most frequently used methods for measuring cognitive load.
“One of the most frequently used methods for measuring cognitive load is self-reporting, as becomes clear from the overview by Paas et al. (2003b).”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
The more often cognitive load is measured, the more accurate the view of the actual cognitive load is, if cognitive load may vary during the learning process.
“The more often cognitive load is measured the more accurate the view of the actual cognitive load is, certainly if it is assumed that cognitive load may vary during the learning process (Paas et al. 2003b).”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
Paas et al.'s (2003b) claims about the uni-dimensional scale are based on Paas et al. (1994), whose data come from Paas (1992) and Paas and van Merriënboer (1994b).
“The claims by Paas et al. (2003b) are based on work by Paas et al. (1994) who presented an analysis of the reliability and sensitivity of the subjective rating method. Their data, again, come from two other studies, namely Paas (1992) and Paas and van Merrie ¨nboer (1994b).”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
Paas et al.'s (2003b) conclusion that measures of cognitive load are related to differences in instructional formats in the majority of studies seems not completely valid, because not all studies they mention have shown such results.
“In their overview of cognitive load measures, Paas et al. (2003b) claim that measures of cognitive load are related to differences in instructional formats in the majority of studies. This conclusion seems not to be completely valid. Not all of the studies they mention have shown such results.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
Paas et al. (2003b) claim that the uni-dimensional scale is reliable, sensitive to small differences in cognitive load, and valid (and non-intrusive).
“Paas et al. (2003b, p. 66), however, claim that the uni-dimensional scale is reliable, sensitive to small differences in cognitive load, and valid (and non-intrusive).”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
Paas and van Merriënboer (1994a) and Paas et al. (2003b) present different views on whether mental load depends on subject characteristics: the former treats mental load as independent of subject characteristics and constant for a given task in a given environment, whereas the latter treats mental load as originating from the interaction between task and subject characteristics.
“With regard to the assessment factors, mental load is imposed by the task or environmental demands. This task-centered dimension, considered independent of subject characteristics, is constant for a given task in a given environment”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
Three groups of techniques are used to measure cognitive load: self-ratings through questionnaires, physiological measures, and secondary tasks.
“Three different groups of techniques are used to measure cognitive load: self-ratings through questionnaires, physiological measures (e.g., heart rate variability, fMRI), and secondary tasks (for an overview see, Paas et al. 2003b).”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
In Paas (1992), worked-out examples and completion problems were superior in terms of extraneous load, but extraneous load during learning was not measured, and no differences between conditions were found on invested mental effort during learning.
“For example, in their overview Paas et al. (2003b, p. 69) state that in the original study by Paas (1992) it was found that worked-out examples and completion problems were superior in terms of extraneous load, but extraneous load during learning was not measured in this study; beyond that, no differences between conditions were found on invested mental effort during the learning process.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
Paas et al. (2003b) state that both instantaneous load and overall load are important for cognitive load theory, but since the theory only refers to addition of types of load and to overload, only instantaneous load should be considered for these purposes.
“Paas et al. (2003b) state that both instantaneous load and overall load are important for cognitive load theory, but since the theory only refers to addition of types of load and to overload; only instantaneous load should be considered for these purposes.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
Pupillary reactions are regarded as sensitive for cognitive load variations but have only been used in a limited number of studies, and their sensitivity to workload changes diminishes with age.
“Pupillary reactions are also used and are regarded as sensitive for cognitive load variations (Paas et al. 2003b; van Gog et al. 2009), but have only been used in a limited number of studies (e.g., Schultheis and Jameson 2004). There are, however, indications that the sensitivity of this measure to workload changes diminishes with age of the participants (van Gerven et al. 2004).”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
The time aspect is not well considered when measuring cognitive load.
“These considerations show that the time aspect is not well considered when measuring cognitive load.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. (2003b)
According to Paas et al. (2003b), physiological measures are suited for capturing instantaneous load, and overall load is often measured with questionnaire-based measures; however, physiological measures are rarely used in cognitive load research, whereas questionnaire measures of overall load prevail.
“According to Paas et al. (2003b) physiological measures are suited for capturing instantaneous load because they can monitor the load constantly, and overall load is often measured with questionnaire based measures. However, physiological measures are very rarely used in cognitive load research, whereas questionnaire measures of overall load prevail.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
Paas et al. (2003b) distinguish instantaneous, peak, accumulated, average, and overall load in relation to time.
“Paas et al. (2003b), citing Xie and Salvendy (2000), distinguish between different types of load in relation to time: instantaneous load, peak load, accumulated load, average load, and overall load.”
From Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instructional design: some food for thought (2010) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003b
Paas et al. (2003) and van Gog and Paas (2008) noted that the subjective rating scale is used in many different ways than originally suggested by Paas and van Merriënboer (1994a, 1994b).
“Paas et al. (2003) and van Gog and Paas (2008) have noted that the subjective rating scale is used in many different ways than originally suggested by Paas and van Merriënboer (1994a, 1994b).”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Paas et al. (2003) and van Gog and Paas (2008)
Researchers have used different verbal labels, used fewer categories, and used only one measurement after all learning or test tasks instead of an average of multiple measurements after each learning and test task.
“Among other differences, researchers have used different verbal labels (i.e. ' task difficulty ' instead of ' invested mental effort ' ), used fewer categories (e.g. 5 or 7 instead of 9) and used only one measurement after all learning or test tasks, instead of an average of multiple measurements after each learning and test task.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Paas et al. (2003) and van Gog and Paas (2008)
Secondary task techniques have been criticised for their intrusiveness and inability to differentiate between different types of cognitive load.
“However, secondary task techniques have been criticised for their intrusiveness (i.e. imposing an extra cognitive load that may interfere with the primary task; Paas et al. 2003) and inability to differentiate between different types of cognitive load.”
From Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later (2019) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003
Mental effort is the cognitive capacity actually allocated to meet task demands and is taken to reflect actual cognitive load.
“Mental effort has been defined by Paas et al., as “the cognitive capacity that is actually allocated to accommodate the demands imposed by the task; thus, it can be considered to reflect the actual cognitive load” (Paas, Tuovinen et al., 2003, p. 64; see also Paas & Van Merriënboer, 1994b).”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Paas, Tuovinen et al., 2003
Subjective rating scales such as Paas's nine-point mental effort scale have been widely used to measure overall cognitive load.
“Subjective rating scales like Paas' (1992) nine-point unidimensional mental effort rating scale have been used intensively for measuring the overall cognitive load experienced by learners (for reviews : Paas, Tuovinen, Tabbers, & Van Gerven, 2003;Van Gog & Paas, 2008).”
From Effects of pairs of problems and examples on task performance and different types of cognitive load (2014) · cites this paper as Paas, Tuovinen, Tabbers, & Van Gerven, 2003
The science of cognitive load quantification has been traditionally separated into physiologic measurements and psychometric measurements of this construct.
“The science of cognitive load quantification has been traditionally separated into physiologic measurements and psychometric measurements of this construct (Paas et al. 2003).”
From Measuring physician cognitive load: validity evidence for a physiologic and a psychometric tool (2017) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003
Measures of cognitive load can reveal important information about CLT beyond traditional performance metrics.
“It has been shown that measures of cognitive load can reveal important information about CLT beyond traditional performance metrics (Paas et al. 2003).”
From Measuring physician cognitive load: validity evidence for a physiologic and a psychometric tool (2017) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003
The nine-point mental effort scale developed by Paas has been shown to be a reliable and valid measure of overall cognitive load.
“This scale has been widely used in the literature and has been shown to be a reliable and valid measure of overall cognitive load (Ayres 2006;Paas et al. 2003).”
From Measuring physician cognitive load: validity evidence for a physiologic and a psychometric tool (2017) · cites this paper as Paas et al. 2003
The addition of Twitter to the intervention did not increase the burden on working memory.
“and therefore the addition of Twitter to the intervention did not increase the burden on working memory [36].”
From Tweets, Apps, and Pods: Results of the 6-Month Mobile Pounds Off Digitally (Mobile POD) Randomized Weight-Loss Intervention Among Adults (2011) · cites this paper as [36]
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- Authors
- Paas, F., Tuovinen, J. E., Tabbers, H., & Van Gerven, P. W. M.
- Affiliations
- Open University of the Netherlands (NL)
- Charles Sturt University (AU)
- Venue
- Educational Psychologist
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2003-01-01
- Volume
- 38
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 63-71
- ISSN
- 0046-1520 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-6985
- OpenAlex
- W1980877068
- Semantic Scholar
- 698e3ec5e9b7bf7217a250366cf00bfff8a49a99
- Cited by
- 2,527
- References
- 12
- Citations by year
- 2026: 149 · 2025: 142 · 2024: 155 · 2023: 135 · 2022: 174 · 2021: 164 · 2020: 156 · 2019: 143 · 2018: 138 · 2017: 135 · 2016: 114 · 2015: 133 · 2014: 120 · 2013: 110 · 2012: 96
- FWCI
- 47.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Educational Psychologist (publishedVersion)
- Research portal (Tilburg University) (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational and Psychological Assessments
- Keywords
- cognitive load assessment, cognitive load theory, working memory, long-term memory, transfer of learning, instructional design, performance-based measures, cognitive architecture
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