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Signaling as a cognitive guide in multimedia learning.
Abstract
In 3 experiments, students received a short science lesson on how airplanes achieve lift and then were asked to write an explanation (retention test) and to write solutions to 5 problems, such as how to design an airplane to achieve lift more rapidly (transfer test). For some students, the lesson contained signals, including a preview summary paragraph outlining the 3 main steps involved in lift, section headings, and pointer words such as because or as a result. The signaling did not add any additional content information about lift but helped clarify the structure of the passage. Students who received signaling generated significantly more solutions on the transfer test than did students who did not receive signaling when the explanation was presented as printed text (Experiment 1), spoken text (Experiment 2), and spoken text with corresponding animation (Experiment 3). Results are consistent with a knowledge construction view of multimedia learning in which learners seek to build mental models of cause-and-effect systems.
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“Results suggested that students receiving the lesson with signals performed significantly better in the problem-solving task than those who did not.”
From Reading authentic EFL text using visualization and advance organizers in a multimedia learning environment (2007) · cites this paper as Mautone and Mayer (2001)
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, Mautone and Mayer (2001, Experiment 3) investigated the effect of signaling in a narrated animation and found that signaling was only effective when both the animation and the narration were signaled (signaled words were spoken with a slower, deeper intonation), but not when only the animation or the narration was signaled.”
From Interactivity in Video-based Models (2007) · cites this paper as Mautone and Mayer 2001
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BackgroundSelf-citationUsing multimedia for e‐learning
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Self-citationMayer, R. E., & Fiorella, L. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.015 · Cited by 411
Self-citationMayer, R. E. (2002) · New Directions for Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1002/tl.47 · Cited by 330
“In the one study in which we tested this issue, students who received a signaled presentation on how airplanes achieve lift performed better on a transfer test than did students who received a nonsignaled version (Mautone and Mayer, 2001, experiment 3).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSignaling in virtual reality influences learning outcome and cognitive load
Albus, P., Vogt, A., & Seufert, T. (2021) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104154 · Cited by 393
Moreno, R. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1348 · Cited by 330
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de Koning, B. B., Tabbers, H. K., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2007) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.1346 · Cited by 302
“So, cues are intended to guide the learners’ cognitive processing but are not intended to provide new information (Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
BackgroundResultWhy does signaling enhance multimedia learning? Evidence from eye movements
Özçelik, E., Arslan‐Ari, I., & Çağıltay, K. (2009) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.09.001 · Cited by 296
“It has been repeatedly shown that signaling has a positive effect on learning (e.g. Glynn & di Vesta, 1979; Loman & Mayer, 1983; Lorch et al., 1995; Mautone & Mayer, 2001; Mayer, Dyck, & Cook, 1984; Meyer & Poon, 2001; Rickards et al., 1997).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialA meta-analysis of how signaling affects learning with media
Schneider, S., Beege, M., Nebel, S., & Rey, G. D. (2018) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2017.11.001 · Cited by 268
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Mayer, R. E. (2021) · Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2021.03.007 · Cited by 377
Self-citationUnique contributions of eye-tracking research to the study of learning with graphics
Mayer, R. E. (2009) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2009.02.012 · Cited by 275
“…research has sometimes failed to find support for the use of visual cues such as arrows in animations (Boucheix & Lowe, 2010; Kriz & Hegarty, 2007; Mautone & Mayer, 2001), the authors in this special issue have identified two versions of visual signaling that improve learning outcomes or…”
BackgroundSelf-citationDesign factors for educationally effective animations and simulations
Plass, J. L., Homer, B. D., & Hayward, E. O. (2009) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-009-9011-x · Cited by 267
“A study by Mautone and Mayer (2001) did not find an effect of visual cueing for animations, which the authors attributed to the low complexity of the content of the animation and of the few distracting elements.”
BackgroundSignaling text-picture relations in multimedia learning: A comprehensive meta-analysis
Richter, J., Scheiter, K., & Eitel, A. (2016) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2015.12.003 · Cited by 242
The Signaling (or Cueing) Principle in Multimedia Learning
van Gog, T. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.014 · Cited by 234
“Mautone and Mayer (2001) investigated signaling in spoken text (yes/no) and in an animation (yes/no).”
InfluentialHow to Optimize Learning From Animated Models: A Review of Guidelines Based on Cognitive Load
Wouters, P., Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2008) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654308320320 · Cited by 224
The instructor’s face in video instruction: Evidence from two large-scale field studies.
Kizilcec, R. F., Bailenson, J. N., & Gomez, C. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000013 · Cited by 236
“Highlighting relevant material to direct visual attention is a technique called signaling and traditionally leverages typography, color, and the insertion of arrows (Mautone & Mayer, 2001; Mayer & Moreno, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodOptimizing cognitive load for learning from computer-based science simulations.
Lee, H., Plass, J. L., & Homer, B. D. (2006) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.98.4.902 · Cited by 227
“Other methods include color coding and signaling (Mautone & Mayer, 2001), clustering of related concepts within the image (Robinson & Kiewra, 1995), and the application of Gestalt theory principles (Shah, Mayer, & Hegarty, 1999; Wiegmann, Dansereau, McCagg, Rewey, & Pitre, 1992; Zacks & Tversky,…”
MethodCastro-Alonso, J. C., de Koning, B. B., Fiorella, L., & Paas, F. (2021) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09606-9 · Cited by 278
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“In two separate experimental tests involving multimedia explanations of airplane lift (Mautone & Mayer, 2001, Experiments 3a and 3b), students who received signaled narration performed better on transfer tests than did students who received non-signaled narration.”
BackgroundSelf-citationSchrader, P. G., & Lawless, K. A. (2004) · Performance Improvement Journal · doi:10.1002/pfi.4140430905 · Cited by 236
Investigating Strategies for Pre-Class Content Learning in a Flipped Classroom
Jensen, J. L., Holt, E. A., Sowards, J. B., Ogden, T. H., & West, R. E. (2018) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-018-9740-6 · Cited by 217
“tant information to the benefit of Video Lecture students above the other treatments (Mautone and Mayer 2001).”
BackgroundClark, D. B., Nelson, B. C., Chang, H., Martinez-Garza, M. M., Slack, K., & D’Angelo, C. M. (2011) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.05.007 · Cited by 192
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.009 · Cited by 194
Self-citationScheiter, K., & Eitel, A. (2014) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2014.11.002 · Cited by 173
Effects of observing the instructor draw diagrams on learning from multimedia messages.
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000065 · Cited by 176
“In an exemplary study by Mautone and Mayer (2001), college students learned about how airplanes achieve lift from a narrated animation that included essential content as well as extraneous information, including irrelevant facts about planes and exces- sively detailed graphics.”
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A meta-analysis of signaling principle in multimedia learning environments
Alpizar, D., Adesope, O. O., & Wong, R. M. (2020) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-020-09748-7 · Cited by 157
“According to Mautone and Mayer (2001), signals can help guide learners to relevant information concerning the overall structure of the material.”
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Cueing animations: Dynamic signaling aids information extraction and comprehension
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“…years (Amadieu, Mariné & Lemay, 2011; Boucheix & Guignard, 2005; Boucheix & Lowe, 2010; De Koning, Tabbers, Rikers, & Paas, 2007, 2009, 2010; Jamet, Gavota, & Quaireau, 2008; Kriz & Hegarty, 2007; Lin & Atkinson, 2011; Mautone & Mayer, 2001; for a comprehensive review, see De Koning et al., 2009).”
Interactivity in Video-based Models
Wouters, P., Tabbers, H. K., & Paas, F. (2007) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-007-9045-4 · Cited by 145
The effects of realism in learning with dynamic visualizations
Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P. H., Huk, T., Imhof, B., & Kammerer, Y. (2008) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2008.08.001 · Cited by 151
Embedding reading comprehension training in content-area instruction.
Williams, J. P., Stafford, K. B., Lauer, K. D., Hall, K. M., & Pollini, S. (2009) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013152 · Cited by 144
Mayer, R. E. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3185-5_31 · Cited by 172
Self-citationEffects of segmenting, signalling, and weeding on learning from educational video
Ibrahim, M. M., Antonenko, P., Greenwood, C., & Wheeler, D. (2011) · Learning Media and Technology · doi:10.1080/17439884.2011.585993 · Cited by 169
“In signalled multimedia presentations, learners can build a mental outline of the presentation, which improves both the retention and transfer of knowledge (Mautone and Mayer 2001 ).”
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“A recent review shows that visual cueing in the form of arrows or coloring or spotlighting can improve student learning of scientific material (van Gog, 2014), although in some cases visual cueing is not as effective as verbal cueing (Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe impact of pedagogical agent gesturing in multimedia learning environments: A meta-analysis
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Applying the Science of Learning to Multimedia Instruction
Mayer, R. E. (2011) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-387691-1.00003-x · Cited by 159
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“If signalling techniques can support learners in lower level selection processes, extraneous cognitive load may be reduced, thereby freeing cognitive resources for germane (productive) cognitive processing of the multiple representations to form a coherent mental structure (Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
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Mautone, P. D., & Mayer, R. E. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.640 · Cited by 121
Self-citationUnderstanding mental workload: from a clarifying concept analysis toward an implementable framework
Acker, B. B. V., Parmentier, D. D., Vlerick, P., & Saldien, J. (2018) · Cognition Technology & Work · doi:10.1007/s10111-018-0481-3 · Cited by 134
“Especially in multimedia settings, instructions enriched by such signals guiding the learner's cognitive processes, showed to result in better problem-solving performance (cf., Experiment 3 in Mautone and Mayer 2001).”
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Self-citationBoucheix, J., & Guignard, H. (2005) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/bf03173563 · Cited by 123
“It is what suggests two relatively recent researches realized with adults by Mautone and Mayer (2001) .”
ResultPicture or Text First? Explaining Sequence Effects when Learning with Pictures and Text
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Getting the point: Tracing worked examples enhances learning
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“…should be directed to the main information of instructional materials to reduce unnecessary visual search, avoiding the waste of visuo-spatial resources (Britton, Glynn, Meyer, & Penland, 1982; de Jong, 2010; Loman & Mayer, 1983; Mautone & Mayer, 2001; Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998).”
BackgroundCoordinating visual and auditory cueing in multimedia learning.
Xie, H., Mayer, R. E., Wang, F., & Zhou, Z. (2018) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000285 · Cited by 99
“The retention test consisted of the open-ended instructions (adapted from Mautone & Mayer, 2001): “Please write down as much as you can remember about the transmission process of nervous impulse in chemical synapses.”
Self-citationSchweppe, J., & Rummer, R. (2013) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-013-9242-2 · Cited by 106
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“Designers add signals that show learners what information to attend to and how to organize that information into manageable, meaningful chunks—guiding the learner in selection, organization, and integration of explanatory information (Mautone and Mayer 2001).”
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“Indeed, other researchers have noted that organizational signals have a significant effect on learning in those instances where text structure was complex; however, signals have not had an impact in instances where text structure was simple and clear (Lorch & Lorch, 1996; Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
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de Koning, B. B., Tabbers, H. K., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2010) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.05.010 · Cited by 99
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Developing and evaluating a strategy for learning from animations
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“…design principles are providing learners with control over the pace of the animation (Schwan & Riempp, 2004), combining the animation with spoken text rather than with written text (Moreno & Mayer, 1999), and highlighting relevant components of the pictorial display (Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
BackgroundWilliams, J. P., Pollini, S., Nubla-Kung, A. M., Snyder, A. E., Garcia, A., Ordynans, J. G., & Atkins, J. G. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033215 · Cited by 84
“…words and sentences, as well as specific rhetorical and graphic signals, helps readers select the information that represents the text macrostructure, organize the information into a coherent mental representation, and integrate the textual information with prior knowledge (Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
BackgroundDoes multimedia learning theory extend to middle-school students?
McTigue, E. M. (2009) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.12.003 · Cited by 86
van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Kester, L. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511816819.006 · Cited by 83
The effects of video lecture viewing strategies on cognitive load
Costley, J., Fanguy, M., Lange, C. H., & Baldwin, M. (2020) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-020-09254-y · Cited by 108
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Mayer, R. E. (2019) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108235631.019 · Cited by 97
Self-citationA Design Space for Applying the Freytag's Pyramid Structure to Data Stories
Yang, L., Xu, X., Lan, X., Liu, Z., Guo, S., Shi, Y., Qu, H., & Cao, N. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2021.3114774 · Cited by 77
“This technique can reduce the cognitive burden of the audience [45], facilitate their comprehension of the visualization, and increase their engagement [3].”
BackgroundEffects of visual cues and self-explanation prompts: empirical evidence in a multimedia environment
Lin, L., Atkinson, R. K., Savenye, W. C., & Nelson, B. C. (2014) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2014.924531 · Cited by 81
“However, the results of two other studies revealed that cueing was not effective when combined with cued narrations (Mautone & Mayer, 2001) or it was only effective for several seconds before the effect disappeared (Lowe & Boucheix, 2011).”
Signaling in expository hypertexts compensates for deficits in reading skill.
Naumann, J., Richter, T., Flender, J., Christmann, U., & Groeben, N. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.4.791 · Cited by 73
Multiple Representations in Physics and Science Education – Why Should We Use Them?
Opfermann, M., Schmeck, A., & Fischer, H. E. (2017) · Models and modeling in science education · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-58914-5_1 · Cited by 95
Effects of multimedia on cognitive load, self‐efficacy, and multiple rule‐based problem solving
Zheng, R. Z., McAlack, M., Wilmes, B., Kohler‐Evans, P., & Williamson, J. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.00859.x · Cited by 71
South Korean Digital Textbook Project
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“Research on multimedia learning suggests that multimedia can foster cognitive change (Mariano, Doolittle, & Hicks, 2009; Mautone & Mayer, 2001) and facilitate information processing in learning (Mayer & Moreno, 2003; Rieber & Kini, 1991).”
BackgroundLin, H., & Chen, T. (2007) · Language Learning & Technology · doi:10.64152/10125/44119 · Cited by 61
“In another study by Mautone and Mayer (2001), students received a short science lesson on how airplanes lift.”
BackgroundWu, C., & Chiang, M.-C. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.11.012 · Cited by 64
“Besides from the above-mentioned, there are some rules that should be considered, such as seven research-based principles for the animation design (Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
BackgroundDoes language matter in multimedia learning? Personalization principle revisited.
Kartal, G. (2010) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019345 · Cited by 72
Navarrete, E., Nehring, A., Schanze, S., Ewerth, R., & Hoppe, A. (2025) · International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education · doi:10.1007/s40593-025-00481-x · Cited by 132
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Craig, S. D., Twyford, J., Irigoyen, N., & Zipp, S. A. (2015) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/0735633115585927 · Cited by 63
“A signaling effect in multimedia learning are elements that do not add information but instead improve the clarity of the passage by providing structure (Mautone & Mayer, 2001).”
BackgroundCognitive Aging and Computer-Based Instructional Design: Where Do We Go From Here?
Gerven, P. W. M. V., PAAS, F. G. W. C., & Tabbers, H. K. (2006) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-006-9005-4 · Cited by 63
“For a full understanding of Table 1, we discuss the guidelines produced by CLT and CTML according to the age-related cognitive declines that they might fit.”
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Grossman, R., Salas, E., Pavlas, D., & Rosen, M. (2013) · Academy of Management Learning and Education · doi:10.5465/amle.2011.0527 · Cited by 59
Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing in Multimedia Learning
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Self-citationAttention Guidance Strategies for Supporting Learning from Dynamic Visualizations
de Koning, B. B., & Jarodzka, H. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56204-9_11 · Cited by 56
Improving instructional video design: A systematic review
Fyfield, M., Henderson, M., & Phillips, M. (2022) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.7296 · Cited by 124
Watch and Learn? Using EDpuzzle to Enhance the Use of Online Videos
Mischel, L. J. (2018) · Management Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/2379298118773418 · Cited by 54
The use of adjunct displays to facilitate comprehension of causal relationships in expository text
McCrudden, M. T., Schraw, G. J., & Lehman, S. (2007) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-007-9036-3 · Cited by 58
“, the causal steps) salient to the learner (Mautone and Mayer 2001).”
BackgroundMethodHuk, T., Steinke, M., & Floto, C. (2009) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-009-9116-7 · Cited by 58
“Mautone and Mayer (2001) state that their interpretations were limited by the fact that their presentation was short, involved only one passage, and did not take place in a classroom setting.”
BackgroundEffects of disfluency and test expectancy on learning with text
Eitel, A., & Kühl, T. (2015) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-015-9145-3 · Cited by 54
Skulmowski, A., & Rey, G. D. (2020) · Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies · doi:10.1002/hbe2.190 · Cited by 50
Tugtekin, U., & Odabasi, H. F. (2022) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-022-10912-0 · Cited by 55
“This finding may support the assumptions of the CTML (e.g., Harp & Mayer, 1998; Mautone & Mayer, 2001; Stull & Mayer, 2007).”
Resultvan der Spek, E. D., Wouters, P., & van Oostendorp, H. (2010) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.01021.x · Cited by 52
Salge, C. A. D. L., Karahanna, E., & Thatcher, J. B. (2022) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2021/15598 · Cited by 54
Explaining pictures: How verbal cues influence processing of pictorial learning material.
Glaser, M., & Schwan, S. (2015) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000044 · Cited by 50
The Role of Instructional Design in Persuasion: A Comics Approach for Improving Cybersecurity
Zhang-Kennedy, L., Chiasson, S., & Biddle, R. (2016) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2016.1136177 · Cited by 48
“For example, Mautone and Mayer (2001) found that students’ performance increased if the lesson included headings, outline, and voice emphasis on key words during a narrated animation of how an airplane achieves lift.”
BackgroundLearning from instructional animations: H ow does prior knowledge mediate the effect of visual cues?
Arslan‐Ari, I. (2017) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12222 · Cited by 52
“Cueing aids learners' cognitive processes by helping them select relevant information (Mautone & Mayer, 2001) and by emphasizing the organizational structure of the information and making the relations between elements more explicit (De Koning et al., 2009).”
BackgroundInfluentialUse of signaling to integrate desktop virtual reality and online learning management systems
Dodd, B. J., & Antonenko, P. (2012) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.05.016 · Cited by 47
“…the context of online learning and desktop VR. Previous research on signaling has traditionally focused on system-paced and paper-based media (Mautone & Mayer, 2001; Mayer, 2008, pp. 351 – 387); however, future work should build on these fi ndings by examining their applicability in…”
BackgroundRichter, J., & Scheiter, K. (2019) · Instructional Science · doi:10.1007/s11251-019-09492-3 · Cited by 47
Metadata
- Authors
- Mautone, P. D., & Mayer, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- ORCID
- Mayer, Richard E.
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2001-06
- Volume
- 93
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 377-389
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2054045882
- Cited by
- 444
- References
- 24
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 23 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 21 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 17 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 8.00
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Innovative Teaching and Learning Methods
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
- Keywords
- signaling, cognitive guidance, multimedia learning, knowledge construction, mental models, transfer of learning, text structure, spoken text, animation, science instruction
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