Role of Guidance, Reflection, and Interactivity in an Agent-Based Multimedia Game.
Abstract
The authors investigated whether guidance and reflection would facilitate science learning in an interactive multimedia game. College students learned how to design plants to survive in different weather conditions. In Experiment 1, they learned with an agent that either guided them with corrective and explanatory feedback or corrective feedback alone. Some students were asked to reflect by giving explanations about their problem-solving answers. Guidance in the form of explanatory feedback produced higher transfer scores, fewer incorrect answers, and greater reduction of misconceptions during problem solving. Reflection in the form of having students give explanations for their answers did not affect learning. Experiments 2 and 3 showed that reflection promotes retention and far transfer in noninteractive environments but not in interactive ones unless students are asked to reflect on correct program solutions rather than on their own solutions. Results support the appropriate use of guidance and reflection for interactive multimedia games. Do educational games have the potential for improving aca-demic learning? For example, Prensky (2001, pp. 4–5) proposed that “by marrying the engagement of games and entertainment with the content of learning and training, it is possible to funda-
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Self-reflection empowers an agent to learn from its past experiences, allowing it to reason about and optimize decisions.
“Self-reflection empowers an agent i to learn from its past experiences, allowing it to reason about and optimize decisions (Moreno & Mayer, 2005;Renze & Guven, 2024;Shinn et al., 2024;Qu et al., 2024).”
From From Imitation to Introspection: Probing Self-Consciousness in Language Models (2025) · cites this paper as Moreno & Mayer, 2005
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Mayer, R. (2020) · doi:10.1017/9781316941355 · Cited by 7,777 · see citing works
Self-citationScientific discovery learning with computer simulations of conceptual domains
De Jong, T., & Van Joolingen, W. R. (1998) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543068002179 · Cited by 1,593 · see citing works
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The ‘digital natives’ debate: A critical review of the evidence
Bennett, S., Maton, K., & Kervin, L. (2008) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2007.00793.x · Cited by 2,971 · see citing works
A meta-analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games.
Wouters, P., van Nimwegen, C., van Oostendorp, H., & van der Spek, E. D. (2013) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031311 · Cited by 1,864 · see citing works
Constructionist Gaming: Understanding the Benefits of Making Games for Learning
Kafai, Y. B., & Burke, Q. (2015) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2015.1124022 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Synthesizing Results From Empirical Research on Computer-Based Scaffolding in STEM Education
Belland, B. R., Walker, A. E., Kim, N. J., & Lefler, M. (2017) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654316670999 · Cited by 346 · see citing works
“Moreno and Mayer (2005) measured principles-level knowledge by assessing whether students could design plants in alien environments that varied in terms of temperature, soil nutrients, and water.”
BackgroundInteractivity in multimedia learning: An integrated model
Domagk, S., Schwartz, R. N., & Plass, J. L. (2010) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2010.03.003 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
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Elaborated feedback and learning: Examining cognitive and motivational influences
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Observational learning from animated models: Effects of modality and reflection on transfer
Wouters, P., Paas, F., & van Merriënboer, J. J. G. (2009) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.03.001 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
An embodied agent helps anxious students in mathematics learning
Kim, Y., Thayne, J., & Wei, Q. (2017) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-016-9476-z · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2010) · Cognitive Load Theory · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511844744.010 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Self-citationNihalani, P. K., Mayrath, M., & Robinson, D. H. (2011) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0025276 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
From Imitation to Introspection: Probing Self-Consciousness in Language Models
Chen, S., Yu, S., Zhao, S., & Lu, C. (2025) · Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL 2025 · doi:10.18653/v1/2025.findings-acl.392 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
- Authors
- Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of New Mexico (US)
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- ORCID
- Mayer, Richard E.
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2005-02
- Volume
- 97
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 117-128
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W1971562229
- Cited by
- 395
- References
- 2
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 11 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 17 · 2018: 14 · 2017: 9 · 2016: 29 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 25 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 30
- FWCI
- 21.96
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Intelligent Tutoring Systems and Adaptive Learning
- Keywords
- game-based learning, guidance, corrective feedback, explanatory feedback, reflection, metacognition, transfer of learning, misconceptions, retention, far transfer, interactive multimedia, science learning, plant design
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