A meta-analysis of the cognitive and motivational effects of serious games.
Abstract
It is assumed that serious games influences learning in 2 ways, by changing cognitive processes and by affecting motivation. However, until now research has shown little evidence for these assumptions. We used meta-analytic techniques to investigate whether serious games are more effective in terms of learning and more motivating than conventional instruction methods (learning: k = 77, N 5,547; motivation: k = 31, N 2,216). Consistent with our hypotheses, serious games were found to be more effective in terms of learning (d= 0.29, p <.01) and retention (d = 0.36, p <.01), but they were not more motivating (d = 0.26, p > .05) than conventional instruction methods. Additional moderator analyses on the learning effects revealed that learners in serious games learned more, relative to those taught with conventional instruction methods, when the game was supplemented with other instruction methods, when multiple training sessions were involved, and when players worked in groups.
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Randomly assigning learners to experimental conditions allows researchers to rule out alternative explanations for differences in learning outcomes between different conditions.
“Randomly assigning learners to experimental conditions allows researchers to rule out alternative explanations for differences in learning outcomes between different conditions.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Wouters et al. 2013
Quasi-experimental studies do not allow alternative explanations to be ruled out.
“However, quasi-experimental studies do not allow alternative explanations to be ruled out (Wouters et al. 2013;Sitzmann 2011).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Wouters et al. 2013
Findings from the context of games have shown that collaborative gameplay can be more effective than individual gameplay.
“Findings from the context of games have shown that collaborative gameplay can be more effective than individual gameplay (Wouters et al. 2013).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Wouters et al. 2013
Research in the context of games has indicated that the effects of games are larger when players engage in multiple sessions and thus play over longer periods of time.
“On the other hand, research in the context of games has indicated that the effects of games are larger when players engage in multiple sessions and thus play over longer periods of time (Wouters et al. 2013).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Wouters et al. 2013
Meta-analytic methods allow for a synthesis of studies using different designs and instruments, and the degree of methodological rigor can vary between primary studies and thus jeopardize the conclusions drawn from meta-analyses.
“As meta-analytic methods allow for a synthesis of studies using different designs and instruments, the degree of methodological rigor can vary between primary studies and thus jeopardize the conclusions drawn from meta-analyses (Wouters et al. 2013).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Wouters et al. 2013
Wouters et al. (2013) found that serious games with narrative elements are not more effective than serious games without narrative elements.
“Whereas Bedwell et al. (2012) found positive effects of the inclusion of game fiction on knowledge and motivation in their review, meta-analyses by others such as Wouters et al. (2013) found that serious games with narrative elements are not more effective than serious games without narrative elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Wouters et al. 2013
The results on cognitive and motivational learning outcomes were in line with meta-analytic evidence from games that including game fiction was not more effective than excluding it.
“However, the results on cognitive and motivational learning outcomes were in line with meta-analytic evidence from the context of games, which found that including game fiction was not more effective than excluding it (Wouters et al. 2013).”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Wouters et al. 2013
The power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.
“In addition, the results of the summary effect analyses were similar to results from meta-analyses conducted in the context of games (see Clark et al. 2016;Wouters et al. 2013), indicating that the power of games can be transferred to non-game contexts by using game design elements.”
From The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as Wouters et al. 2013
Elements of gaming utilized in SPARX-R, such as following a narrative, completing challenges and interacting with program characters, may improve engagement and facilitate learning.
“Furthermore, elements of gaming utilized in SPARX-R, such as following a narrative, completing challenges and interacting with program characters, may improve engagement and facilitate learning (Wouters et al., 2013).”
From A pilot evaluation of the SPARX-R gaming intervention for preventing depression and improving wellbeing among adolescents in alternative education (2017) · cites this paper as Wouters et al., 2013
Serious games were not more motivating than conventional instruction methods.
“in a meta-analysis of 31 studies, Wouters et al. (2013) found that, contrary to common beliefs, serious games were not more motivating than conventional instruction methods.”
From Testing the Effects of GraphoGame Against a Computer-Assisted Math Intervention in Primary School (2022) · cites this paper as Wouters et al., 2013
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Shemesh, D. O. (2014) · International Journal of Cyber Society and Education · doi:10.7903/ijcse.1147 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Simbiosis vital para describir el ciberbullying en Colombia
Rueda, A. I. R., & Díaz, W. D. Á. (2014) · Revista Científica General José María Córdova · doi:10.21830/19006586.61 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Effects of vocabulary computer training in kindergarten
Segers, P. C. J., & Verhoeven, L. T. W. (2003) · Radboud Repository (Radboud University) · doi:10.1046/j.0266-4909.2003.00058.x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
van Dijk, V. (2010) · Cited by 6 · see citing works
A serious game to prevent bullying and promote empathy
Raminhos, C., Cláudio, A. P., Carmo, M. B., Carvalhosa, S. F., Candeias, M. D. J., & Gaspar, A. (2015) · Iberian Conference on Information Systems and Technologies (CISTI) · doi:10.1109/cisti.2015.7170404 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Pan, Z., Aylett, R. S., Diener, H., et al. (2006) · Springer eBooks · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
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Sung, Y.-T., Chang, K.-E., & Liu, T.-C. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.008 · Cited by 1,574 · see citing works
The gamification of learning: a meta-analysis
Sailer, M., & Homner, L. (2020) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-019-09498-w · Cited by 1,458 · see citing works
Gamification for health and wellbeing: A systematic review of the literature
Johnson, D., Deterding, S., Kuhn, K.-A., Staneva, A., Stoyanov, S., & Hides, L. (2016) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2016.10.002 · Cited by 1,237 · see citing works
Digital Games, Design, and Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Clark, D. B., Tanner-Smith, E. E., & Killingsworth, S. S. (2016) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654315582065 · Cited by 1,274 · see citing works
Boyle, E. A., Hainey, T., Connolly, T. M., Gray, G., Earp, J., Ott, M., Lim, T., Ninaus, M., Ribeiro, C., & Pereira, J. (2016) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.003 · Cited by 1,133 · see citing works
Meta-analysis of action video game impact on perceptual, attentional, and cognitive skills.
Bediou, B., Adams, D. M., Mayer, R. E., Tipton, E., Green, C. S., & Bavelier, D. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000130 · Cited by 807 · see citing works
The effect of games and simulations on higher education: a systematic literature review
Vlachopoulos, D., & Makri, A. (2017) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-017-0062-1 · Cited by 776 · see citing works
Serious gaming and gamification education in health professions: systematic review
Gentry, S. V., Gauthier, A., L’Estrade Ehrstrom, B., Wortley, D., Lilienthal, A., Tudor Car, L., Dauwels-Okutsu, S., Nikolaou, C. K., Zary, N., Campbell, J., et al. (2019) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/12994 · Cited by 648 · see citing works
Hillmayr, D., Ziernwald, L., Reinhold, F., Hofer, S. I., & Reiss, K. M. (2020) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103897 · Cited by 574 · see citing works
“…autonomy) and experiencing tasks as challenging but not overly complicated (i.e., competence) can be achieved via implementing educational features — such as feedback, pacing, and guided activity (Section 2.2.1) — into digital tools (Wouters, van Nimwegen, van Oostendorp, & van der Spek, 2013).”
BackgroundInfluentialA meta-analysis of serious digital games for healthy lifestyle promotion
DeSmet, A., Van Ryckeghem, D., Compernolle, S., Baranowski, T., Thompson, D., Crombez, G., Poels, K., Van Lippevelde, W., Bastiaensens, S., Van Cleemput, K., et al. (2014) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.08.026 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
Feng, Z., González, V. A., Amor, R., Lovreglio, R., & Cabrera-Guerrero, G. (2018) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.002 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
Constructionist Gaming: Understanding the Benefits of Making Games for Learning
Kafai, Y. B., & Burke, Q. (2015) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.2015.1124022 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Effects of digital game-based STEM education on students’ learning achievement: a meta-analysis
Wang, L.-H., Chen, B., Hwang, G.-J., Guan, J.-Q., & Wang, Y.-Q. (2022) · International Journal of STEM Education · doi:10.1186/s40594-022-00344-0 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
“Previous studies considered “con-trol treatment” as a moderator variable to compare the experimental treatments with the different control treatments (Garzón & Acevedo, 2019; Merchant et al., 2014; Sitzmann, 2011; Wouters et al., 2013).”
MethodArtificial Intelligence Applications in K-12 Education: A Systematic Literature Review
Zafari, M., Bazargani, J. S., Sadeghi-Niaraki, A., & Choi, S.-M. (2022) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2022.3179356 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
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Brom, C., Stárková, T., & D'Mello, S. K. (2018) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2018.09.004 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
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Hawlitschek, A., & Joeckel, S. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.01.040 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
McTigue, E. M., Solheim, O. J., Zimmer, W. K., & Uppstad, P. H. (2020) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.256 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Effects of digital games on student motivation in mathematics: A meta‐analysis in K‐12
Fadda, D., Pellegrini, M., Vivanet, G., & Zandonella Callegher, C. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12618 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Kim, J., Gilbert, J., Yu, Q., & Gale, C. (2021) · AERA Open · doi:10.1177/23328584211004183 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Chow, J. C., & Ekholm, E. (2018) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-018-9437-7 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Arztmann, M., Hornstra, L., Jeuring, J., & Kester, L. (2023) · Studies in Science Education · doi:10.1080/03057267.2022.2057732 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Videogames as Therapy: An Updated Selective Review of the Medical and Psychological Literature
Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., & Ortiz de Gortari, A. B. (2017) · International Journal of Privacy and Health Information Management · doi:10.4018/ijphim.2017070105 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Imlig-Iten, N., & Petko, D. (2018) · Simulation & Gaming · doi:10.1177/1046878118779088 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Kuosmanen, T., Fleming, T. M., Newell, J., & Barry, M. M. (2017) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2017.03.004 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
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“A review of research on the application of digital games in foreign language education,”
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Adaptive scaffolding and engagement in digital game-based learning
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Difficulty and self-efficacy: An exploratory study
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Extracting Design Guidelines for Augmented Reality Serious Games for Children
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Self-citationTesting the Effects of GraphoGame Against a Computer-Assisted Math Intervention in Primary School
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“Indeed, in a meta-analysis of 31 studies, Wouters et al. (2013) found that, contrary to common beliefs, serious games were not more motivating than conventional instruction methods.”
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The role of help-seeking from ChatGPT in digital game-based learning
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A Virtual Reality–Based Psychological Treatment in Long-Term Hospitalization: A Case Study
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Videogames as Therapy: An Updated Selective Review of the Medical and Psychological Literature
Griffiths, M. D., Kuss, D. J., & Ortiz de Gortari, A. B. (2020) · Alternative Pain Management · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-1680-5.ch014 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
- Authors
- Wouters, P., van Nimwegen, C., van Oostendorp, H., & van der Spek, E. D.
- Affiliations
- Utrecht University (NL)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2013-05
- Volume
- 105
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 249-265
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2127076710
- Semantic Scholar
- 68b75e47e1f6bd3fd42100f35475c9dbb5344be6
- Cited by
- 1,864
- References
- 114
- Citations by year
- 2026: 184 · 2025: 179 · 2024: 160 · 2023: 138 · 2022: 163 · 2021: 169 · 2020: 145 · 2019: 178 · 2018: 153 · 2017: 125 · 2016: 112 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 53 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 23.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
- TU/e Research Portal (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (411-10-902)
- Netherlands ICT Research and Innovation Authority
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Games and Gamification
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Digital Games and Media
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Keywords
- serious games, game-based learning, learning outcomes, student motivation, knowledge retention, conventional instruction comparison, game-based instruction, group learning, training sessions
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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